tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-86359991211418797462024-02-20T05:18:06.912-08:00Women's Role in SocietyGeniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comBlogger70125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-71766978391791500222010-06-27T08:03:00.000-07:002010-06-27T08:04:27.663-07:00Women’s Role in the SocietyWomen do not have the same position as men, though much progress has been made in the society to bring women to a stage where they have equal rights, equal pay, equal independence but still it is not achieved. Though it may seem that women have a great deal of freedom and independence, the overall condition of women in the world of today is not as it should be. Still the bird flies with only one wing as the other is hampered and not fully functional.<br /><br />Equality requires that those women who are the most liberated from bondages come forth in the world in all spheres of life and make themselves known, make their values known, influence the society. It is changing quickly but it must change more quickly for it is bringing up the feminine qualities and characteristics that will save the human society from annihilation.<br /><br />From this feminine quality and characteristic rising to the forefront the human society will grow and thrive in the future. Without this development the human society will move to destructive actions. Those possessive and territorial qualities and characteristics that are normally associated with masculine vibration are much less with the balancing of the feminine, with her influence and leadership.<br /><br />Of course there are many variations among men and women so that a generalization will not apply to all. But it is true that, in the main, the masculine has certain qualities that are stronger than those of feminine nature. Those of feminine nature have certain qualities that are stronger in the main will be stronger. It can be said that those in female form have more capacity for emotional bonding and attachment. This is the result of the nurturing role of women with children. It is a biological factor.<br /><br />What mother wants a war? What mother with sons wants a war? The mother’s desire is always that her children be safe and have the best life possible. So a woman is bound to bring peace to the world. As those of feminine quality become more influential in human society, they bring care for the aged, care for the ill, care for the young and strong desire not to allow harm to their sons and daughters.<br /><br />These are the qualities of the feminine. These qualities are in dire need in the human political arena, in the development of the society. The qualities of the feminine personality are needed and the sooner they come forward the better.<br /><br />So the women’s liberation movement sought to give equal employment to women. But then the women had to be like men, to forsake their time with their children, forsake their strong desire to be with the family and children in order to achieve financial success and status. Then, when their menses comes, they must pretend they have no pain and no need. When they go into menopause, they are not to show signs or symptoms. This is seen as a weakness, both to have pain with the period and to have signs and symptoms of menopause.<br /><br />By whose values are these weaknesses? Who has said this is weakness? This arose in the world based upon the work of men. When women enter that world, their needs are seen as weaknesses. So women are the weaker sex and they get emotional before their period, another feminine weakness. By whose standard is this a weakness? By whose standard are women the weaker sex?<br /><br />You see women leaving the captivity at home where they are dependent upon the working men for bread and butter. They leave to earn their own living in the male-dominated work force where they are expected to be like men. Then what happens to the children? What are those children with their mothers gone? What happens when the mothers have a hard-hearted boss who thinks it is a weakness if the mother must take time to be with her child?<br /><br />This is not liberation. The women in this society are not as liberated as you may think. The true liberation of women requires the values and standards of women, the sweetness, the softness, the association of care and nurturance. Why is it a crime to need a day, a week, and a month off the work? Perhaps it should be the standard. The values of women and the needs of women must be incorporated into the society, the sooner the better and the more the better because it is when this comes forward that balance will occur in the human society. It is not for women to become men ignoring all of their own needs, trying to suppress them so that they don’t show any weakness. It is for women to come forward and all these things that are natural to stop being defined as weaknesses. These are natural to the feminine body and to the feminine mind. They are to be seen as a natural flow, respected as such, and given due time and accordance.<br /><br />When this occurs, change in human society will occur of a great magnitude. War will become a black mark in human history. Human services and the care for living beings will become more prominent as women come to the front. There are women who are charging ahead of the crowd to take a post that requires them to adopt the standards, methods and values of men but this has a great cost to themselves. It is not inherent to their nature. It is not natural or happy. It is true as I have said that this may vary from individual to individual. But you will find when you analyse many women who have gone far in their carriers or in their political position having to adopt many masculine traits and practices, that they are feeling some pain, longing for something, missing or fearing they missed. This is because they have been oppressed even though they may be very successful, they have been oppressed as women and they have not been taught to value their sweet and softer side. They have been taught to suppress their feminine cyclical nature, their emotional variations to be successful in the world of man. Perhaps they have had to sacrifice having children or nurturing and knowing their children. Perhaps they have had no time for them and they feel a great loss.<br /><br />These are hardships of women in society today where the women appear to make a better stand for themselves in the working world. But to truly make a better stand, it is not only to be in the working world, but to be proudly a woman, carrying forward the values and standards with pride, respecting the cycles of a woman’s life, of your life, your changes, the ups and downs, ebbs and flows, days when you must rest, days when you should go out into the world, days when you feel slightly irritable. The cycles of menopause, the cycles of a woman’s life are like the rhythms of nature. They are a part of the rhythm of the earth and the moon. They are great. They are not weaknesses. They are the tides of nature.<br /><br />Be women in the working force, in the world! There must be made a place for women so that success in the world will be on your terms in the tides and rhythms of your body, your mind, your feelings, and your relationships. None of this should be forsaken, sacrificed. No, it is time for this to end because the greatness that women have to offer is not to be another man in the man’s workforce but to bring the feminine heart to change that masculine force, to soften it, modify it, dance with it in a rhythm that will soothe it and shape it and put an end to the strains that now rest upon the world.Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-28305770645764630612010-06-27T08:00:00.000-07:002010-06-27T08:03:12.245-07:00The religious role of women in Igbo traditional society<strong>The religious role of women in Igbo traditional sociey</strong><br />In the Igbo society, women played and still play significant roles in the religious activities of their communities and villages. It is very certain in Igbo land that women both participate in the religious activities of their society and make their own contributions to the spiritual welfare of their families and society at large. The women in traditional religions, and in Christianity have the diverse ways through which they played and still play active roles. In some Igbo communities women were and still are women Priests (Priestesses), known amongst the Igbos as Eze Nwanyi and as Nne Mmanwu. A good number of the women belonged to the various masquerade cults and play very active roles. The women priestesses offer prayers for their families and communities and consult the oracles to seek for direction and instruction for the society. Women were and still are traditional healers, and some of these female traditional healers handle women and children’s ill health. They have also delievered pregnant women of their babies<br />Amongst the Christians in Igbo land, the women played and still play very active roles in the churches, the welfare of the priests in charge of the churches are more often than not taken up by the women. It is well known that amongst the Pentecostal Churches, the women Ministry take the welfare of the Pastors as their responsibility. In the 1980s, as a young child, I witnessed first hand the shared responsibility amongst women in my local Church to send in cooked food to the Priests and church workers especially the single ones amongst them.<br />In the contemporary Igbo society especially amongst the towns in Anambra State, women are very actively involved in church projects and all sorts of levies ranging from Church hall building fund, Church building fund, children church fund are imposed on and collected from the women by and amongst themselves. The popular and annual August General Meeting of some of the Churches have been turned to avenues of raising funds for the Church projects through the women thus giving room to unhealthy competition and rivalry, which are very common and noticeable during such meetings.<br />Furthermore, a good number of modern day churches are beginning to support women’s ordination as Pastors and Ministers of the gospel and encourage women to hold positions of leadership, unlike in some of the churches introduced by the colonial masters who still treat women in accordance with St. Paul’s instructions in the Bible. In the Anglican communion in Nigeria, women are not ordanied as priests, rather they could become lay Readers, while in the Catholi Church pre<br />Thus in the religious sphere, the position and roles of the Igbo woman cannot be overlooked as they are like the pillars holding the structures.Read moreGeniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-67109865490030633852010-06-18T19:51:00.001-07:002010-06-18T19:51:49.831-07:00Women rights activists discuss human development, call for strengthening a woman's role in society<div class="artc"> <a onclick="'s_objectID="" href="http://www.undp.org.ua/images/content/771_b.jpg" class="modal" title="Women rights activists discuss human development, call for strengthening a woman's role in society"><img alt="Women rights activists discuss human development, call for strengthening a woman's role in society" title="Women rights activists discuss human development, call for strengthening a woman's role in society" src="http://www.undp.org.ua/images/content/771.jpg" style="margin-right: 10px; margin-bottom: 5px;" align="left" border="0" /></a> <strong>Over 70 women representing Ukrainian Government, Parliament, law-enforcement agencies, NGOs, academic institutions, business entities, arts and sports have gathered to discuss their opportunities and the ways to change their country for better.</strong> <p>While opening the round table, <strong>Joanna Kazana-Wisniowiecka</strong>, UNDP Deputy Resident Representative in Ukraine, said that International Women's Day has been observed all over the world and on this day it is important to ponder over the role of women in society, the obstacles that women face to full enjoyment of their rights, and over why it is so important to promote women's capacity and leadership.</p> <p>UNDP Deputy Resident Representative in Ukraine reminded that one of the Millenium Development Goals is to Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women, and Ukraine has bound itself to ensure gender ratio on the level no less than 30 to 70 of one or another sex in representative state institutions and at the highest ranks of executive power.</p> <p>As Joanna Kazana-Wisniowiecka mentioned the latest statistics from the Inter-Parliamentary Union show that, as of January 2008, globally, women still hold only 17.8% of seats in both houses of parliament combined. Ukraine stands at 8.2%, while being one of the few countries in the world with a woman prime minister.</p> <p>She added that female participation in political decision-making bodies has been witnessed to improve the quality of governance. Recent studies find a positive link between women's increased participation in public life and a reduction of the level of corruption.</p> <p>Deputy Minister of Ukraine for Family, Youth and Sports <strong>Tetyana Kondratyuk</strong> said the International Women's Day would be celebrated this year under a theme "Women and Men: United to End Violence against Women and Girls". She informed that in line with the UN Secretary General's statement, several public and international organizations appealed to conduct national campaigns "Stop to Violence!" focused on fighting domestic violence.</p> <p>She added that this year Ukrainian Women's movement would celebrate a 125th-year anniversary.</p> <p><em>"Two days ago in Kharkiv, the Museum of the Ukrainian Women's Movement History was opened. Thus, this round table we dedicate to the memory of prominent Ukrainian women. Your current social activity is a contribution into the History too",</em> stressed the Deputy Minister.</p> <p>Head of Operations Section 1 of the European Commission's Delegation to Ukraine <strong>Martin Schieder</strong> affirmed that gender equality is a fundamental right, a common value of the EU, and a necessary condition for achieving the EU's objectives of growth, employment and social sustainability.</p> <p>According to <strong>Ella Libanova</strong>, Demography Institute Director, women control only 5-10% of economic resources in Ukraine. Women make up 38% of the total number of entrepreneurs doing their own individual business and manage 26% of small enterprises, 15% of medium, and 12% of large ones. Only 2% of industry business managers are women. Women's salary rates are 68.6% of men's on average.</p> <p>During the round table meeting, the participants analysed the reasons behind under-representation of women in politics and proposed recommendations on women empowerment and giving women space for decision-making.</p> <p>The meeting attracted Vlada Lytovchenko, President of the Charity Fund "Talented Children are Ukraine's Future", Mariya Burmaka, People's Artist of Ukraine, Olena Govorova, Olympic Prize-winner, Head of the Commission "Woman and Sport" of the National Olympic Committee of Ukraine, Alina Shaternikova, professional boxer, World Champion, Svitlana Maziy, Olympic Prize-winner and other prominent Ukrainian women.</p> <p><strong>For further information, please, contact Mykola Yabchenko, Equal Opportunities and Women's Rights in Ukraine Programme, tel: +38 067 290 55 01, +38 044 569 40 75, mykola.yabchenko@undp.org.ua. </strong></p> </div>Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-39638623256123968922010-06-18T19:50:00.001-07:002010-06-18T19:50:51.140-07:00Lyudmyla Taran, a poetess, literary critic, journalist;<p class="par1"> </p> <img src="http://www.wumag.kiev.ua/20033/P80_3.jpg" vspace="3" align="left" border="1" hspace="10" /> <p class="par4">Lyudmyla Taran,</p> <p class="par3left">a poetess, literary critic, journalist; </p> <p class="par3left">author of Zhinka yak tekst (Woman as a Text, 2002) </p> <p class="par3left">and Zhinka and Cholovik (Man and Woman, 2002)</p> <p class="par1"> </p> <p class="par1">When I am asked, Are you a feminist, I am always at a loss what to say. I ask in return, Which meaning do you put into being a feminist?</p> <p class="par1">So, am I a feminist? I am a person who wants to respect herself. At the age when I became conscious of myself as a person — some time when I was between seven and ten — I began to feel a great desire to control my own destiny. I wanted to solve my own problems all by myself. I wanted to earn money to support myself, I wanted to be as little dependent on anybody as possible. I have always wanted to make my own decisions, to make my own choices — and be responsible for the consequences. This longing for independence is nothing less than a desire to live my own life. </p> <p class="par1">One of the stereotypes about women has it that only women can do monotonous, precise, painstaking work. Maybe there are women who like that kind of work, but I, in spite of being a female, cannot stand any monotonous work, I hate what they call “women’s chores” — tidying, cooking, weaving or needlework. I did do some embroidery in my younger years but did not derive any pleasure out of it — it just annoyed me. I like creative work — anything else for me is just “filling the bottomless hole.” </p> <p class="par1">I was brought up in a family of patriarchal traditions, where women were allotted their traditional roles. My husband comes from a family with similar traditions, and it took me quite some time and a lot of effort to change his opinions — to understand my position and act accordingly. If a woman feels happy cooking, if it gives her satisfaction, if she thinks that’s her calling is to be a housewife, a homemaker, there’s nothing wrong in it either. If such is her free choice, she is absolutely welcome to it. </p> <p class="par1">Are Ukrainian women special or different from women of other nations? I don’t know, but I do think that Ukrainian women have what may be described as “hypertrophied sense of duty” which men use to their advantage. Ukrainian women take too much on themselves, and do too much, and in this way they spoil men. Ukrainian women have adapted to the new economic situation and they have learnt new trades, they earn money doing so many things, and men are just sitting on their hands. Many women think they are so heroic, so powerful, they can do anything — but subconsciously they want their men to try as hard.</p>Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-51185966867238587872010-06-18T19:49:00.000-07:002010-06-18T19:50:04.969-07:00Iryna Hrabovska, a literary critic, author of essays dealing with the gender issues<p class="par1"> </p> <img src="http://www.wumag.kiev.ua/20033/P80_2.jpg" vspace="3" align="left" border="1" hspace="10" /> <p class="par4">Iryna Hrabovska,</p> <p class="par3left">a literary critic, author of essays dealing with the gender issues</p> <p class="par1"> </p> <p class="par1">The issues that the feminist movement deals with are of a great topicality for Ukrainian society. But their topicality is not determined by the social need widely understood and supported by Ukrainian society. This need is formed by the compliance with international documents which Ukraine has accepted and ratified in order to move toward being admitted to the European Union. Besides, the gender issues are popular to be dealing with — you can receive grants and develop interesting projects. </p> <p class="par1">Ukrainian women are sometimes said to have always been rather independent. It is a myth rather than reality. It happened many times in the Ukrainian history that the nation was threatened with destruction, and the men left home to fight the invader. So many of the fighters died in battles and it was the Ukrainian women who were to save the nation from extinction. They were the actual Protectresses of the family and of the people as a whole. </p> <p class="par1">Ukraine was indeed a borderland between the wild steppe in the east, the Tartar south and the civilized Europe in the west. In the absence of men who were either fighting or dead, the women raised children, took care of the households and upheld the traditions. And it led to another problem — the image of the Ukrainian father did not get properly formed. In fact, it is absent both in Ukrainian folklore and Ukrainian literature. We have Ukraine-Mother, Ukrainian Woman-Protectress. Ukrainian women protected their children, they were responsible for them, and they could not help forming their own views on life; they had to make decisions all by themselves and decision making developed their sense of independence. They were forced, as it were, to be independent — it was a matter of survival. On the other hand, Ukrainian women did not have any social options, they did not have a choice of wanting to be independent, or not wanting it. And their independence was limited to a close circle of their families. </p> <p class="par1">I am of the opinion that the problem of Ukrainian women and men is a problem of deeply ingrained servileness of the public mind, of slave psychology — the Ukrainian women seem to be lacking any desire to ponder things, to arrange things in a better, purposeful way (incidentally, the same can be said about the Ukrainian men as well). Ukrainians in Ukraine continue to be, similarly to the way it was in the Soviet times, little cogs in the machine. The machine, the political system that is, has fallen apart and is in a chaotic state, and the woman’s mind is also in a state of chaos. You can hear from one and the same person contradictory opinions expressed within a short time — at a conference, delivering her report, a feminist says that women in Ukraine should struggle for better social and family position for herself, etc., but during the break, in a private conversation, she would say that everything is all right, women are not discriminated against, there are many ways to get their opinions heard, there are grants to be used for conducting research and writing books.</p> <p class="par1">However there are several problems that the women in Ukraine face. The problem number one, as far as I am concerned, is violence, and it is not violence only in the family against women, it is violence perpetrated by society — manipulation of the mind. </p> <p class="par1">Even according to the official statistics, there are over 120,000 children abandoned by their mothers. Mother and child is another problem.</p> <p class="par1">In many spheres, it is much more difficult for a woman than for a man to find a job. Women are forced to go into all kinds of “shady” businesses or into prostitution. </p> <p class="par1">The present-day Ukrainian society does not give women much of an option — 95 percent of average Ukrainian families cannot survive without women contributing to the family budget. Perversely, the mass media propagate the image of a happy housewife in an opulent household, and the official demographers call for women “to produce more children.” </p>Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-45546399596716653032010-06-18T19:47:00.000-07:002010-06-18T19:49:04.644-07:00Prof. Vira Aheyeva, Ph.D., author of Zhinochy prostir (Female Space), published in 2003<p class="par1"> </p> <img src="http://www.wumag.kiev.ua/20033/P80_1.jpg" vspace="3" align="left" border="1" hspace="10" /> <p class="par4">Prof. Vira Aheyeva,</p> <p class="par3left">Ph.D., author of Zhinochy prostir (Female Space), published in 2003</p> <p class="par1"> </p> <p class="par1">The feminist movement has a long and rich history in Ukraine. It was not introduced to this country from the west, as it seems to some of our contemporaries. The feminist movement began to gain momentum at the end of the nineteenth century. It was a mild form of feminism, Ukrainian style. At the early stages of the feminist movement we find such prominent writers as Olha Kobylyanska and Lesya Ukrayinka; a little later, Milena Rudnytska and Natalya Kobrynska founded the feminist Union of Ukrainian Women. The Union was far more than a creation of intellectuals to promote their ideas — it was a force that found a response in popular support. In Western Ukraine, particularly in Halychyna, branches of the Union could be found in many villages. The Union did a lot of work and had a political influence as well.</p> <p class="par1">Unfortunately, much of what was gained has been lost. Let’s have a look at the issue of equality, for example. From the formally legal point of view, the full equality of men and women is proclaimed. But in reality, the situation is quite different. Recently the Ukrainian president had the cheek to openly and blatantly declare in one of his public statements that Yuliya Tymoshenko, one of the opposition leaders in parliament, could never become president of the country simply because the Ukrainian people would never elect a woman for president! It hardly needs any further comment.</p> <p class="par1">Gender studies conducted these days in Ukraine are the most noticeable and remarkable phenomenon in the Ukrainian literary criticism and the reverberations from these studies are felt far beyond the narrow boundaries of literature.</p> <p class="par1">There is a popular opinion that it is women who have failed to find happiness in their personal lives, who become feminists. There is no grain of truth in it. Back in the mid-twentieth century, Simone de Beauvoir noted that when unemployment was on the rise, women were called upon to confine themselves to their traditional roles as wives, mothers and homemakers, allegation being that it was what Nature designed for them. Simone de Beauvoir once brilliantly said that “you are not born a woman, you become a woman.” Similar to other brilliant but ambiguous statements, it can be interpreted in different ways. </p> <p class="par1">Starting from their young days, Ukrainian girls are brought up to be gentle, yielding, non-aggressive and placid. They are prepared for the role of homemakers, to be decorative elements of the interiors. And boys are brought up to function in a wide world. So in this sense, one does not become a woman. Once I showed our Ukrainian ABC books to foreigners and they begged me to give them these books as presents, so much were they impressed with some of the pictures they saw in them — Moms at home cooking and dusting and Dads at work. No one in Ukraine would be surprised — much less get indignant — to see a picture or a sequence in a film of a typical situation: father and son watching TV or building something with a do-it-yourself kit, and mother doing the dishes.</p> <p class="par1">There also exists an opinion that the issues the women’s liberation movement addresses itself to are not urgent or topical for Ukrainian society, the argument being: there are many women who successfully work in all the spheres of social, scientific and political endevour. Some (or very few in certain spheres) would be a correct word. But even for those women who did get through into the once totally male domains, it became possible thanks to a long struggle that had lasted all through the twentieth century. The women of today are different from the women of yesterday; young girls have become cleverer, smarter and more ambitious; they have discarded many stereotypes. Luckily enough, young men had also become different; they have begun to unburden themselves of the traditional principles of what “a true man” should be. The women of today are no longer as placid and complacent as the old principles required them to be. Many of them are achievers on a par with men. Can a woman who is a manager of a big enterprise or chief doctor of a big clinic be gentle and complacent? Hardly. We should not require women to be “gentle and complacent”; neither should we ask provocative questions of the kind “Do women-feminists want to be loved and caressed?” I wonder what a macho man wants, at least once in a while?</p>Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-23157226750676293362010-06-18T19:46:00.000-07:002010-06-18T19:47:24.533-07:00Being a women in Ukraine<p class="par7">A poll conducted by the Ukrainian Institute of Social Studies last year, showed that most of the Ukrainians polled — 61 percent of women and 51 percent of men — were of the opinion that the social status of men was higher than that of women. At the same time, 81 percent of women were determined to champion more actively the cause of women in their struggle against social injustice and traditions favouring male dominance.</p> <p class="par1"> </p> <p class="par4">A cursory look</p> <p class="par1">A cursory look at the women’s position in the Ukrainian society of today and in the past may give one a wrong impression that a women’s liberation movement of the kind that has been so aggressive in the past several decades, is hardly needed in Ukraine. Or so the male chauvinists will claim. They will provide a plethora of examples from the Ukrainian history and folklore, substantiating their point of view. Take, for example, they will say, such Ukrainian women as Princess Olga, the wise, tenth-century ruler of Kyiv and the first Christian in the land of Kyiv, whom even the Byzantine emperor treated with respect and even offered his hand in marriage (she sagaciously turned down the emperor’s proposal); or Nastya Lisovska, a girl from Polissya, who in the sixteenth century became a beloved wife of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Sultan of Turkey (1520–1566) under whose governance the Ottoman Empire reached the height of its power, not without advisory help from Roxolana (Nastya’s Turkish name); or Lesya Ukrayinka, the prominent Ukrainian author of the late 19th-early 20th century, who was called “the only true man in Ukrainian literature” by a leading literary critic and poet. And of course some of the Ukrainian rural traditions will be mentioned which seem to point out to a relative independence of Ukrainian women even in the times of old — a girl, for instance, who despite the insistence of her parents, did not want to marry someone who had proposed to her, would send the suitor a pumpkin, a sign of rejection, without succumbing to the parental pressure. </p> <p class="par1">The Ukrainian women are described as being beautiful, excellent housewives, clever with her hands, doing marvellous embroideries, needlework, weaving — you name it. The Ukrainian women seem to be held in high respect by politicians of varying rank, from top to bottom, who, in their speeches call them “keepers of the hearth,” “hope and saviours of the state.” Women are called upon “to be guarantors of peace and goodwill in the family,” to devote themselves “to raising the new generations of Ukrainians, the future of the nation,” “to be active participants of the social life,” “to…” The list is too long. Incidentally, who are the women called upon by?</p> <p class="par1"> </p> <p class="par4">A closer look</p> <p class="par1">A closer look at the social and family position of Ukrainian women will reveal quite a different picture. In their absolute majority, Ukrainian women are run-down, worn-out, with very little time left after work and house chores to take care of herself. Ukrainian women are accustomed to suffer and being resigned to their fate for the sake of their children, they have a heightened sense of duty and responsibility, they take on so much on themselves, they do so much for the family and for society, but they find that the proverbial “man’s shoulder” on which they supposedly can lean for support in most cases turns out to be either not strong enough or absent altogether.</p> <p class="par1">The many issues connected with the position of women in Ukrainian society began to be raised and looked into much more vigorously than ever before after Ukraine’s independence. In the context of “the national revival,” such roles, “most natural for women” and “sanctified by God and history,” as “mother,” “wife,” “guardian of traditions and spirituality” were proclaimed as “inviolable” and “eternal.” And the newest feminist theories which come to Ukraine from the west are mostly dismissed as “not applicable to the conditions that exist in Ukraine.”</p> <p class="par1">Literary critics — female critics, of course, rather than male — were the first to begin to advocate the applicability — and necessity — of feminist theories in Ukraine. In 1990, Solomiya Pavlychko, a remarkable person, literary critic and translator, initiated a feminist seminar, the first of its kind, to be held in Ukraine. The venue, ironically, was the arch-conservative Institute of Literature. The Osnovy Publishing House that Pavlychko had founded, published translations of such important feminist works as The Second Sex by Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986; French writer, existentialist, and feminist) and The Sexual Politics by Kate Milet. International grants began to be awarded for conducting gender research; seminars, social surveys and polls, dealing with the role and position of women in Ukrainian society began to be held; feminist centres began to be set — characteristically, most of these things with the help of western money.</p> <p class="par1"> </p> <p class="par4">“By God, I’ll divorce you!”</p> <p class="par1">Odarka, the main protagonist of Hulak-Artemovsky’s famous opera, Zaporozhets za Dunayem (A Zaporizhian Cossack beyond the Danube), written in the nineteenth century and based on the events of the previous century, sings, in a heated argument with her Cossack husband Karas, “By God, I’ll divorce you!” Obviously, very few of her contemporaries in other countries could get rid of their husbands in such a legal way — the right to initiate divorce and break the marriage bonds at that time was still denied to women in practically all European countries. A scrutiny of the Ukrainian history does reveal that the legal status of women, at least at the level of the upper and middle classes, provided them with rights not available to women in other countries. </p> <p class="par1">In the early periods of Ukrainian mediaeval history, marriages were agreed upon by the parents or close relatives of the future husband and wife, with the bride excluded from the final decision, but there is enough historical evidence that suggests that the bride’s interests were taken into account. During the reign of the Kyiv Prince Yaroslav the Wise, the Civil Code was drawn and the articles dealing with the position of women in the then society, marriage and dissolution of marriage show that women were given a certain degree of freedom in marital matters. A monetary fine was imposed on a woman’s parents not only in case of her committing suicide to avoid being forced into marriage, but also in cases when the parents refused to allow a daughter to marry someone of her own choice.</p> <p class="par1">In contrast to Western Europe, in the Ukraine of the 16th–17th centuries, it was the material status of women themselves that determined her social position rather than the social position of their husbands. Women-landowners paid taxes and this fact indicated that they enjoyed the full rights of membership of the then society. Women were entitled to filling official posts, such as starosta (local administrator or governor), they even could inherit the office of starosta. Women took an active part in local self-government and were influential in the social and political life of Ukrainian cities. </p> <p class="par1">When Ukraine was incorporated into the Russian and Austrian Empires with the last vestiges of independence completely gone in the eighteenth century, the legal status of women in the Ukrainian lands went through a drastic change. In the lands dominated by the Russian Empire, the Russian laws were in force, and some of the articles of the Criminal and Civil Codes were openly discriminatory towards women. The system of serfdom robbed the women serfs of any rights whatsoever. </p> <p class="par1">In the Soviet times, a sort a feminist movement did exist in Ukraine but it was very much different from what it was in the west. Soviet society, in which everybody was obliged to work (“those who don’t work, do not eat”) viewed women mostly as “mothers” and “workers,” combining these two functions. The Soviet Constitutions of 1936 and of 1977 declared equal rights for men and women but any unbiased and even perfunctory study immediately reveals that these Constitutions are based, as far as women are concerned, on the deeply ingrained patriarchal stereotypes — the men were treated as the driving force and model for society, whereas women were relegated to being solely the homemakers and caretakers of the family. </p> <p class="par1">The “Constitution of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic” of 1978 did contain articles dealing with “full equiality of all the citizens,” but even the official propaganda could not completely hide the outrageous facts of discrimination against women in all the spheres of life. The ruling stereotypes remained traditionally patriarchal — women should concern themselves with their families, and the official ratification in 1980 of the UN Convention “On Doing Away with All the Forms of Discrimination against Women” did not change anything.</p> <p class="par1"> </p> <p class="par4">Woman-Protectress and Ukraine Viewed as Woman</p> <p class="par1">For the Ukrainians, “the family” and “the idea of national sovereignty” have always been among the top values. In this context, Ukrainian Berehynya (Protecting goddess) carries the features of Ukraine-Woman, the mythical notion that views Ukraine as a woman-figure. This view was actively promoted by certain circles of the Ukrainian men from the upper classes in the period from the eighteenth to the early twentieth century. </p> <p class="par1">By the end of the seventeenth century, the myth of Ukraine-Woman had come to supplement the myth of the Cossack Republic, viewed as an Orthodox brotherhood of free men, the brotherhood built the principles of honesty, comradeship, undaunted courage and chivalrous valour, and love of nenka-Ukraine (nenka — term of endearment for mother-tr). At the time when Ukraine lived through a period of political strife and loss of independence, the myth of Ukraine-Woman acquired negative features; a woman — mother, sister or sweetheart — raped, mistreated or even killed. The themes of the destruction of the Cossack Brotherhood and the ruin of Ukraine that had lost her sons — her defenders and support, entered the Ukrainian folklore. The plight of Ukraine is compared, for example, with the fate of a seagull whose nestlings are trampled underfoot, and who, abused and helpless, is left, all alone, to suffer on the windswept beach — or on the crossroads of history.</p> <p class="par1">The image of the abused woman is recurrent in the works of Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861), the charismatic figure of Ukrainian culture. It was he who introduced into the public consciousness the image of Ukraine-Kateryna as a symbol of love that has been denied and of death that results from love violated. </p> <p class="par1">Shevchenko’s poem Kateryna soon after its publication acquired a status of a cult work in Ukraine, and women in the countryside often recited it like a prayer (briefly, the plot of the poem: a young Ukrainian girl falls in love with a Russian soldier who soon leaves; Kateryna is pregnant and when she is delivered of a child, her father throws her out of the house, thus punishing her for the shame and dishonour Kateryna has brought on the family; homeless and rejected, Kateryna dies, leaving her son an orphan).</p> <p class="par1">At the end of the 20th century, a new term, mental rape, gained wide currency (it was borrowed from the theory of colonialism). The contemporary Ukrainian author Oksana Zabuzhko writes: “Shevchenko did not talk the language of terms, he talked the language of symbols, the language of archetypes. But the things he describes perfectly fit the category of mental rape. In the second quarter of the 19th century, the number of Ukrainian women who were violated and who gave birth to bastard children, is estimated to have reached 20,000, and Shevchenko, of course, knew of this poignant problem resulting from the social vices of the time and involving thousands upon thousands of women and their fatherless children. Probably he realized that it signalled the beginning of colonization of Ukraine — colonization as opposed to foreign occupation; colonization understood as internal subjugation — social and mental rape through sexual rape.”</p> <p class="par1">Like any myth that possesses the full set of characteristics of a myth, the myth about Ukraine-Woman, is multifaceted. It carries in itself not only the historical codes of the raped, subjugated nationality, but also positive notions of winning eternal love — love of Mother-Protectress. In the hardest times of the Ukrainian history, the Ukrainian women played a very significant social role as a stabilising factor — they were the Protectresses and continuers of the nation threatened with extinction. The persevering tenacity and fertility of the Ukrainian women contributed to the survival of the Ukrainian nation. On the other hand, the Ukrainian complexes of being victimized, of searching for an external enemy responsible for the domestic failures, of servility and of conformity flourish on the fertile soil of such myths.</p> <p class="par1"> </p> <p class="par4">Gender and politics</p> <p class="par1">Nowadays, the myth of Ukraine-Woman finds its reflection in the unbalancing of the gender harmony in the social and political spheres, with the male principle being self-suppressed and the female principle being pushed toward a domineering position. Today there are few women in Ukrainian politics — in the biological sense, as it were, with most of the politicians being biological males. But these political males behave in a way traditionally associated with a female type of behaviour — these political males are weak-willed, spineless, disoriented, and puerile. If one wants to give examples of the outstanding, colourful figures who — and it is of a particular importance — have been unwaveringly consistent in their stance in the Ukrainian politics of the past few years, women-politicians immediately come to mind — the late Yaroslava Stetsenko, Yuliya Tymoshenko, Natalya Vitrenko and Valentyna Semenyuk, to name a few of them. A similar situation is observed in the Ukrainian political journalism — Yuliya Mostova, Tetyana Korobova, Olena Prytula. These figures are of different political affiliations and their role is not necessarily unequivocal, but they are definitely personalities of a towering stature. It would be difficult to find men of the same stamina and fortitude among Ukrainian politicians, except for a few. The main thing that differs them from male politicians is their staunch adherence to their positions, in having views all their own, even though these views are sometimes expressed in hysterical tones. </p> <p class="par1">Unbalancing of the gender harmony can be observed at the level of ideology as well. For instance, the recently introduced “multivector” strategy in international priorities of Ukraine is based on the purely female principle — it is a search for a better partner: should we be with Europe? Or the USA? Or Russia? Or someone else? The Ukrainian politicians, for some reason, do not seem to find it necessary to rephrase the question and ask: And who wants to be with Ukraine? </p> <p class="par1">Or let’s take the decision to scrap the nuclear weapons. In a symbolical — or even in a strategic-sense it is but self-emasculation, unmanning, a symbolical castration of a nation.</p> <p class="par1"> </p> <p class="par4">Man and Woman: </p> <p class="par4">Myths and Realities of Today</p> <p class="par1"> The present day Ukrainian women have been saddled with “a special mission” in the fate of the Ukrainian state, Ukrainian nation, and Ukrainian culture. And the Ukrainian women continue to bear the main responsibility for the maintenance of the family. This mission entails a duty to make this fate happy. And if it is unhappy — accountability for it. Too much was expected of Ukrainian women, too many fatal failures occurred in the long course of the Ukrainian history — and these much too high expectations and these failures have led to the emergence of “the guilt complex,” and to the “weaker but more beautiful” part of the Ukrainian nation feeling intimidated and frustrated — women feel they have failed to fulfil “the mission to save the nation” imposed upon them. One of the most pernicious and destructive ideas that was being pushed upon the Ukrainian women was the idea of self-sacrifice in the interests of others. Self-sacrifice of this kind is incompatible with the democratic principles in general, and with the feminist principles in particular, because it robs the woman of the free will and reduces her to being a puppet. Another sequence of this ruinous idea, which is not given as much attention as it should be, is violence at home and sexual abuse which so many women in Ukraine suffer from. Characteristically, the Law “On Prevention of Violence in the Family” was passed by parliament only in 2001, that is full ten years after Ukraine had gained independence. </p> <p class="par1">The tendency to reduce women to their biological function of motherhood is evident in the traditional Ukrainian culture. It remains a wide-spread attitude today. “Happy motherhood” is no doubt a great and wonderful thing, but in Ukraine there is a crippling addition to the ideal of happy motherhood — ideally, the woman is supposed to be a working mother. It makes women strive to achieve success in two separate and not at all overlapping domains — work and motherhood. There were some feeble attempts in the Soviet times to increase the birth rates and encourage women to have children but they did not amount to much since they were mostly confined to “resolutions” and promises. The independent Ukraine borrowed this approach. Women were given the right to stay at home raising their children until they are six years of age (“looking-after-children leave”) instead of three years as it used to be, but the support money the state pays women is so little that it is absolutely impossible to support a child on it. </p> <p class="par1"> </p> <p class="par4">Men: Higher Wages, Better Jobs</p> <p class="par1">There are more women graduates from high schools than men (57 percent); there are more female students in colleges than male students (52 percent); only at the level of postgraduate studies there are more men than women (47 percent are female graduate students). But there are more women in Ukraine than men with technical or higher education (43 percent and 34 percent correspondingly).</p> <p class="par1">However, when it comes to employment and wages, it is the same old story again — men, as a rule, get higher wages, better and more prestigious jobs, and women are left with routine, less interesting and less prestigious jobs with lower wages. “The gender imbalance” is particularly evident in the higher echelons of management and political power. </p> <p class="par1">In the late 1990s, 57 percent of able-bodied men were employed (the rest, presumably were self-employed, ran their own businesses or were unemployed); by contrast, only 43 percent of able-bodied women were employed. In the countryside, 70 percent of able-bodied men and 80 percent of able-bodied women were engaged in work at their plots of land; 13 percent of able-bodied men and only 7 percent of able-bodied women had their own businesses. </p> <p class="par1">In other words, the only sphere of work where Ukrainian women predominate is the toiling at the plots of land in the countryside — the work of minimal prestige and maximum labour intensity. And of very little profit. The private business sector is much less accessible to women than to men. There are very few women — if any — among the managers and owners of big enterprises, and even in small — and medium-sized businesses there are many more men than women.</p> <p class="par1">In the past few years, the number of women in jobs requiring high qualifications and skills has been diminishing, and the other way round, their share in jobs requiring little or no qualification has been growing. At the same time, the number of women among managers, heads of departments, etc., has declined. Among the top managers there are only 5.8 percent of women, and among managers of lower levels there are less than 20 percent women.</p> <p class="par1">In the sphere of political life, the same picture is observed — women are prevented from reaching the higher echelons in decision making; there are very few women in the leadership of political parties; the number of male MPs is far greater than the number of female MPs in the Ukrainian parliament — 95 percent of Verkhovna Rada deputies are men (out of 450 deputies, 426 are men, which reduces women MPs’ share to only 5.1 percent). </p> <p class="par1"> </p> <p class="par1">In the 1970s, Vasyl Stus, the prominent Ukrainian poet (and dissident; for his championing of the Ukrainian national cause and for views incompatible with the Soviet ideology, he was imprisoned and he died in a concentration camp — tr.) called the Ukrainians “a nation of sergeants.” Now, in the independent Ukraine, this definition no longer applies, but it still can be used as reference to the position of the Ukrainian women in society — they are always ready to take on any tasks imposed upon them; they are held accountable for everything and anything; they are always badly needed at work and in the family; however, they must always remember that they are only “sergeants” with men being of higher ranks, they must always remember where they belong, and must never aspire to become generals. They are free though to indulge in daydreaming. </p> <p class="par1"> </p> <p class="par3">Nataliya Rudnichenko has used the following sources in compiling this article:</p> <p class="par3"> </p> <p class="par3">Chy dovho shche kvylyty “chaitsi-nebozi” by Iryna Hrabovska,<br />Suchasnist magazine, #5, 2000.</p> <p class="par3"> </p> <p class="par3">Genderni studiyi v Ukrayini: stan, problemy, perspektyvy,<br />a report delivered by Oksana Kis at a seminar held by Ji magazine in September 2000.</p> <p class="par3"> </p> <p class="par3">Problemy zhinok v Ukrayini,<br />a report on the survey conducted by Kyiv International Institute of Sociology, 1999.</p> <p class="par3"> </p> <p class="par3">Genderny parytet v umovakh rozbudovy suchasnoho ukrayinskoho suspilstva,<br />a study conducted by the Ukrainian Institute of Sociological Studies, Kyiv, 2002.</p> <p class="par3"> </p> <p class="par3">Istorychni aspekty gendernoyi polityky v Ukrayini by V. Dyahilyev,<br />a report made at the international conference, Kyiv, 2002.</p>Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-31085398021112283252010-06-17T02:50:00.000-07:002010-06-17T02:55:17.125-07:00Department of Women's Studies at the University of Albama<p class="heading"><br /> <a name="mission"></a>Mission Statement </p> <p>The mission of the Department of Women's Studies is to provide a forum for interdisciplinary teaching, research, and service in order to facilitate the critical investigation of the status and roles of women in society and to promote research by and about women. </p><p class="heading"><a name="history"></a>History </p><p>The Master of Arts program in Women's Studies at The University of Alabama is an interdisciplinary program working cooperatively with other departments to provide knowledge of the cultural history and status of women, and to conduct research on th eforces which shape women's role in society. In 1972 a group of University of Alabama students initianted a project to introduce courses in women's studies into the curriculum. They identified faculty who would be willing to develop courses on women and, by the the spring of 1975, a women's studies -- the first in the Southeast -- was launched. The Master of Arts degreee program was established, with the first graduate students enrolled, in 1988. The Department of Women's Studies inclued a core faculty, a graduate adjunct faculty, and participating faculty from almost every descipline. </p><p class="heading"><a name="facts"></a>Facts </p><ul><li>In 1977, The University of Alabama Women's Studies Program became a founder and charter member of the Southeastern Women's Studies Association. </li><li>The M.A. program offers graduate teaching and research assistantships to qualified applicants; recipients are trained in feminist pedagogy and they teach undergraduate Women's Studies courses. </li><li>Opportunities for summer teaching and internships also exist. </li><li>Graduate students have come from every state in the southeast and from as far away as Arizona and California, Maine and New Hampshire, Missouri and Wisconsin among others. </li><li>International students have enrolled from Colombia, Italy, Finland, Germany, Japan, and Thailand. </li><li>Program graduates are employed as lawyers, social workers, college professors, editors, and psychologists. They are directors of university women's centers, and research and development centers. </li><li>Graduates have been accepted into doctoral programs in American Studies, English, Popular Culture, Political Science, Psychology, Public Health, Social Work, Statistics, and Communication Studies. </li><li>Women's Studies encourages its graduates to publish their research and find a wider audience. Our students have published in the following: <span class="italic">Asian Journal of Women's Studies; Feminist Issues; International Journal of Public Administration; Yale Review of Feminism and the Law; Nature, Society, and Thought</span>; as well as <span class="italic">Women's Studies Quarterly</span>. </li><li>Faculty participation has grown every year, representing many academic disciplines and five colleges of the University: Arts & Sciences, Business, Communication and Information Sciences, Education, and Law. </li><li>Graduate Students are encouraged to pursue interdisciplinary interests and work with a wide range of university faculty. </li></ul>Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-31915892976492206842010-06-16T18:51:00.000-07:002010-06-16T18:52:17.420-07:00Women's rights in the 1800s' AmericaBlack women suffered the most in this period. Half of our nation believed in slavery. Its cruelty led frightened mothers to committ acts of bestiality. Fratricide and infanticide rose high among Negro mothers. Some killed their children to save them from lives of bondage. One such act occurred in Missouri (1830s). Slave catchers cornered the woman on her northern flight to freedom. She stabbed her two sons before her pursuers <p itxtvisited="1">shot her dead. Women joined slave rebellions at the risk of hanging. Like black men, black women preferred to die fighting than to live in slavery. </p> <p itxtvisited="1">In 1855, in Missouri vs. Celia, a slave was declared as property and couldn't defend herself from rape by her master. Biracial children born out of rape were either sold to Indians or killed to conceal the affairs. By the Constitution, African slaves "were 3/5 property" like cattle. They were constantly beaten, tortured, raped or murdered. Very few masters treated their African women kindly. The ones they treated special became mistresses. This gave black women another derogative, job title. They were also chosen as "whores". </p> <p itxtvisited="1">White women climbed a little more on society's ladder. In 1839, Mississippi granted women the right to hold property. Women had to have their husbands' permission first. </p> <p itxtvisited="1">In 1848, 300 women and men signed a "Declaration of Sentiments". This was a plea to end gender discrimination in all "spheres of society". Before, women's roles in American society were only inside the family home. It took the bravery of black women to give white women their voice.</p> <p itxtvisited="1">Abolitionists, Harriett Tubman and Sojourner Truth, put their gender into the forefront. Tubman earned a reputation as freedom fighter in the Norther press. She received scorn from Southern newspapers. Tubman led hundreds of slaves to freedom. In the Civil War, she distinguished herself as a nurse and a spy for the Union army. Truth composed the piece "Ain't I a Woman". She wrote about the ills of slavery, the cruelty done to her African race and the disrespect done to her gender. It was a composition that attacked the hypocrisy of America's so-called freedom. </p> <p itxtvisited="1">In 1869, the Wyoming territory passed the first women's suffrage law. In the following year, a sexually integrated, grand jury heard cases in the territory's capital of Cheyenne. Territories and Northern states offered more for women than Southern states. </p> <p itxtvisited="1">In 1879, a special Congressional legislation allowed a woman to try a case before the <span class="sumLink">Supreme Court</span>. Her name was Belva Lockwood. Over a decade later, Wyoming showed it was more socially advanced than the South. The state granted women their right to vote in all elections. The rest of the country granted that right in 1920. </p> <p itxtvisited="1">America in the 1800s was about war, slavery, Tammany Hall corruption and Indian extermination. White women took their concessions and slowly moved forward. Black women suffered through years of slavery, racism and discrimination. Their fight for freedom has yet to end.</p><!-- google_ad_section_end(name=main) -->Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-48169038990549935742010-06-16T10:13:00.000-07:002010-06-16T10:14:30.578-07:00Russia The Role of Women<p><span style="font-family:arial;">In the post-Soviet era, the position of women in Russian society remains at least as problematic as it was in previous decades. In both cases, a number of nominal legal protections for women either have failed to address the existing conditions or have failed to supply adequate support. In the 1990s, increasing economic pressures and shrinking government programs left women with little choice but to seek employment, although most available positions were as substandard as in the Soviet period, and generally jobs of any sort were more difficult to obtain. Such conditions contribute heavily to Russia's declining birthrate and the general deterioration of the family. At the same time, feminist groups and social organizations have begun advancing the cause of women's rights in what remains a strongly traditional society.</span></p><p><span style="font-family:arial;">The Soviet constitution of 1977 stipulated that men and women have equal rights, and that women have equal access to education and training, employment, promotions, remuneration, and participation in social, cultural, and political activity. The Soviet government also provided women special medical and workplace protection, including incentives for mothers to work outside the home and legal and material support of their maternal role. In the 1980s, that support included 112 days of maternity leave at full pay. When that allowance ended, a woman could take as much as one year of additional leave without pay without losing her position. Employer discrimination against pregnant and nursing women was prohibited, and mothers with small children had the right to work part-time. Because of such provisions, as many as 92 percent of women were employed at least part-time, Soviet statistics showed.</span></p><p><span style="font-family:arial;">Despite official ideology, Soviet women did not enjoy the same position as men in society or within the family. Average pay for women in all fields was below the overall national average, and the vaunted high percentage of women in various fields, especially health care, medicine, education, and economics, did not hold true in the most prestigious and high-paying areas such as the upper management of organizations in any of those fields. Women were conspicuously underrepresented in the leadership of the CPSU; in the 1980s, they constituted less than 30 percent of party membership and less than 5 percent of the party Central Committee, and no woman ever achieved full membership in the Politburo.</span></p><p><span style="font-family:arial;">Most of the nominal state benefit programs for women continued into the post-Soviet era (see Social Welfare, this ch.). However, as in the Soviet era, Russian women in the 1990s predominate in economic sectors where pay is low, and they continue to receive less pay than men for comparable positions. In 1995 men in health care earned an average of 50 percent more than women in that field, and male engineers received an average of 40 percent more than their female colleagues. Despite the fact that, on average, women are better educated than men, women remain in the minority in senior management positions. In the Soviet era, women's wages averaged 70 percent of men's; by 1995 the figure was 40 percent, according to the Moscow-based Center for Gender Studies. According to a 1996 report, 87 percent of employed urban Russians earning less than 100,000 rubles a month (for value of the ruble--see Glossary) were women, and the percentage of women decreased consistently in the higher wage categories.</span></p><p><span style="font-family:arial;">According to reports, women generally are the first to be fired, and they face other forms of on-the-job discrimination as well. Struggling companies often fire women to avoid paying child care benefits or granting maternity leave, as the law still requires. In 1995 women constituted an estimated 70 percent of Russia's unemployed, and as much as 90 percent in some areas.</span></p><p><span style="font-family:arial;">Sociological surveys show that sexual harassment and violence against women have increased at all levels of society in the 1990s. More than 13,000 rapes were reported in 1994, meaning that several times that number of that often-unreported crime probably were committed. In 1993 an estimated 14,000 women were murdered by their husbands or lovers, about twenty times the figure in the United States and several times the figure in Russia five years earlier. More than 300,000 other types of crimes, including spousal abuse, were committed against women in 1994; in 1996 the State Duma (the lower house of the Federal Assembly, Russia's parliament) drafted a law against domestic violence.</span></p><p><span style="font-family:arial;">Working women continue to bear the "double burden" of a job and family-raising responsibilities, in which Russian husbands generally participate little. In a 1994 survey, about two-thirds of women said that the state should help families by paying one spouse enough to permit the other to stay at home. Most women also consider their role in the family more difficult than that of their husband. Such dissatisfaction is a factor in Russia's accelerating divorce rate and declining marriage rate. In 1993 the divorce rate was 4.5 per 1,000 population, compared with 4.1 ten years earlier, and the marriage rate declined from 10.5 per 1,000 population in 1983 to 7.5 in 1993. In 1992 some 17.2 percent of births were to unmarried women. According to 1994 government statistics, about 20 percent of families were run by a single parent--the mother in 94 percent of cases.</span></p><p><span style="font-family:arial;">Often women with families are forced to work because of insufficient state child allowances and unemployment benefits. Economic hardship has driven some women into prostitution. In the Soviet period, prostitution was viewed officially as a form of social deviancy that was dying out as the Soviet Union advanced toward communism. In the 1990s, organized crime has become heavily involved in prostitution, both in Russia and in the cities of Central and Western Europe, to which Russian women often are lured by bogus advertisements for match-making services or modeling agencies. According to one estimate, 10,000 women from Central Europe, including a high proportion of Russians, have been lured or forced into prostitution in Germany alone.</span></p><p><span style="font-family:arial;">Independent women's organizations--a form of activity that was suppressed in the Soviet era--have been formed in large numbers in the 1990s at the local, regional, and national levels. One such group is the Center for Gender Studies, a private research institute. The center analyzes demographic and social problems of women and acts as a link between Russian and Western feminist groups. A traveling group called Feminist Alternative offers women assertiveness training. Many local groups have emerged to engage in court actions on behalf of women, to set up rape and domestic violence awareness programs (about a dozen of which were active in 1995), and to aid women in establishing businesses. Another prominent organization is the Women's Union of Russia, which focuses on job-training programs, career counseling, and the development of entrepreneurial skills that will enable women to compete more successfully in Russia's emerging market economy. Despite the proliferation of such groups and programs, in the mid-1990s most Russians (including many women) remain contemptuous of their efforts, which many regard as a kind of Western subversion of traditional social values.</span></p><p><span style="font-family:arial;">The rapidly expanding private sector offers women new employment opportunities, but many of the Soviet stereotypes remain; the most frequently offered job in new businesses is that of secretary, and advertisements often specify physical attractiveness as a primary requirement. Russian law provides for as much as three years' imprisonment for sexual harassment, but the law rarely is enforced. Although the Fund for Protection from Sexual Harassment has blacklisted 300 Moscow firms where sexual harassment is known to have taken place, demands for sex and even rape still are common on-the-job occurrences.</span></p><p><span style="font-family:arial;">Women's higher profile in post-Soviet Russia also has extended to politics. At the national level, the most notable manifestation of women's newfound political success has been the Women of Russia party, which won 11 percent of the vote and twenty-five seats in the 1993 national parliamentary elections. Subsequently, the party became active in a number of issues, including the opposition to the military campaign in Chechnya that began in 1994. In the 1995 national parliamentary elections, the Women of Russia chose to maintain its platform unchanged, emphasizing social issues such as the protection of children and women rather than entering into a coalition with other liberal parties. As a result, the party failed to reach the 5 percent threshold of votes required for proportional representation in the new State Duma, gaining only three seats in the single-seat portion of the elections (see The Elections of 1995, ch. 7). The party considered running a candidate in the 1996 presidential election but remained outside the crowded field.</span></p><p><span style="font-family:arial;">A smaller organization, the Russian Women's Party, ran as part of an unsuccessful coalition with several other splinter parties in the 1995 elections. A few women, such as Ella Pamfilova of the Republican Party, Socialist Workers' Party chief Lyudmila Vartazarova, and Valeriya Novodvorskaya, leader of the Democratic Union, have established themselves as influential political figures. Pamfilova has gained particular stature as an advocate on behalf of women and elderly people.</span></p><p><span style="font-family:arial;">The Soldiers' Mothers Movement was formed in 1989 to expose human rights violations in the armed forces and to help youths resist the draft. The movement has gained national prominence through its opposition to the war in Chechnya. Numerous protests have been organized, and representatives have gone to the Chechen capital, Groznyy, to demand the release of Russian prisoners and locate missing soldiers. The group, which claimed 10,000 members in 1995, also has lobbied against extending the term of mandatory military service.</span></p><p><span style="font-family:arial;">Women have occupied few positions of influence in the executive branch of Russia's national government. One post in the Government (cabinet), that of minister of social protection, has become a "traditional" women's position; in 1994 Ella Pamfilova was followed in that position by Lyudmila Bezlepkina, who headed the ministry until the end of President Boris N. Yeltsin's first term in mid-1996. Tat'yana Paramanova was acting chairman of the Russian Central Bank for one year before Yeltsin replaced her in November 1995, and Tat'yana Regent has been head of the Federal Migration Service since its inception in 1992. Prior to the 1995 elections, women held about 10 percent of the seats in parliament: fifty-seven of 450 seats in the State Duma and nine of 178 seats in the upper house of parliament, the Federation Council. The Soviet system of mandating legislative seats generally allocated about one-third of the seats in republic-level legislatures and one-half of the seats in local soviets to women, but those proportions shrank drastically with the first multiparty elections of 1990.</span></p>Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-61176890198681063982010-06-13T05:00:00.000-07:002010-06-13T05:02:01.060-07:00Italy-2009 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices<p class="ds1"><span class="ds4"></span><span class="ds6">Italy is a multiparty parliamentary democracy with a population of approximately 59.1 million. The bicameral parliament consists of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. Executive authority is vested in the Council of Ministers, headed by the president of the council (the prime minister). The president, who is the head of state, nominates the prime minister after consulting with the leaders of all political forces in the parliament. International observers considered the April 2008 national parliamentary elections free and fair. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces.</span><br /> </p><p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The government generally respected the human rights of its citizens, although there were problems with lengthy pretrial detention; excessively long court proceedings; violence against women; trafficking in persons; and abuse of homosexuals, Roma, and other minorities.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">RESPECT FOR HUMAN RIGHTS</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Section 1 Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From:</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The government or its agents did not commit any politically motivated killings during the year. Although security forces were involved in several controversial killings, there was no apparent systematic pattern of abuse by authorities.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On January 30, a police inspector was involved in the fatal shooting of his neighbor, Diouf Ckeikh, a Senegalese immigrant. The incident, which took place in Civitavecchia, was the result of a minor dispute.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On March 20, an Algerian detained in a center for identification and expulsion in Rome died. Red Cross physicians stated a heart attack caused his death, while other detainees claimed that police officers had beaten him. The Ministry of Interior ordered an internal investigation.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On April 7, authorities charged two police officers in Milan with the murder of Giuseppe Turrisi, a man who was living in a homeless shelter. According to prosecutors, blows from the two officers resulted in the man's death.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On July 14, a judge sentenced a police officer to six years' imprisonment in the widely reported case of Gabriele Sandri. The court found the officer guilty of manslaughter for using excessive force in his attempt to break up a fight involving rival soccer fans in Arezzo in 2007.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On July 6, a judge sentenced four police officers to three years and six months in prison for the 2005 involuntary manslaughter of Federico Aldrovandi in Ferrara. In this case, police responded to a report of a person under the influence. The suspect later died from injuries he sustained while he was being taken into custody.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">b. Disappearance</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The law prohibits such practices; however, there were reports that police occasionally used excessive force against persons, particularly Roma and immigrants detained in connection with common criminal offenses or in the course of identity checks.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On May 15, Parma prosecutors indicted local police officers for assaulting Emmanuel Bonsu Foster, a young Ghanaian whom police identified as a drug dealer.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On October 7, the court of Genoa acquitted Gianni De Gennaro, who was head of the National Police during protest demonstrations at the 2001 G-8 summit. Authorities had charged him with inducing police officers to give false testimony regarding police behavior toward the protesters.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">In July 2008 a court sentenced 15 police officers to prison terms of five months to five years for the "inhuman or degrading treatment," including assault, of some detained protesters. In November 2008 a Genoa court sentenced to two- to four-year prison terms 13 police officers convicted of perjury, conspiracy, or assault stemming from their raid on a building used by the protesters.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">In 2008 the European Court on Human Rights (ECHR) issued judgments that found that the country had twice violated the prohibition against inhuman or degrading treatment in the European Convention on Human Rights.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On March 24, the ECHR, citing the need to prevent violation of their rights in their home countries, blocked the deportation of eight individuals whom authorities considered terrorists.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On August 3, the Interior Ministry deported a Tunisian man, Toumi Ali Ben Sassi, despite a May 18 request by the ECHR not to execute the expulsion on the grounds that he risked torture and mistreatment in his home country.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On February 24, the ECHR ruled that the June 2008 expulsion of Ben Khemais violated the European Convention on Human Rights.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Prison and Detention Center Conditions</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Prison and detention center conditions generally met international standards, although some prisons remained overcrowded and antiquated. The government permitted visits by independent human rights observers. On July 26, the ECHR determined that there had been a violation of Article 3 (prohibition of inhuman or degrading treatment) of the European Convention on Human Rights regarding treatment of Bosnian inmate Izet Sulejmanovic in Rebibbia Prison from November 2002 to April 2003. The same court determined there had been no violation of the Convention for the period of detention from April to October 2003. Sulejmanovic filed suit based on the conditions of his detention, in particular, prison overcrowding and insufficient daily exercise outside of his cell. The court ordered the government to pay Sulejmanovic 1,000 euros ($1,430) in compensation.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On October 16, authorities arrested Stefano Cucchi for drug possession. While in custody, police transferred him to Rebibbia prison and then to a hospital, where he died on October 22. The circumstances of his death were not clear. The Prosecutor's Office in Rome opened a manslaughter investigation. The prisoners' rights group Antigone claimed that authorities held Cucchi in an overcrowded prison, resulting in failure to provide him the care due a prisoner arrested while under the influence of drugs.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">According to the Ministry of Justice, at year's end, an estimated 66,500 inmates were in a prison system designed to hold 44,066; however, the uneven distribution of prisoners left a few institutions particularly overcrowded. Older facilities lacked outdoor or exercise space, and some prisons lacked adequate medical care. In September approximately 52 percent of inmates were serving sentences; the other 47 percent were mainly detainees awaiting trial.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">According to an independent research center, during the year 175 prisoners died in custody, 72 of them by suicide. There were allegations that a small number of these deaths were the result of abuse or negligence on the part of prison officials.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Temporary detention centers for immigrants were less overcrowded than in the past due to a decrease in the number of persons reaching the country illegally from North Africa. The law does not require pretrial detainees to be held separately from convicted prisoners; they were held together in smaller prisons.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The government permitted visits to detention facilities by independent human rights organizations, parliamentarians, and the media.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">In November 2008 the UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention visited some facilities in Milan, Rome, Naples, and Sicily and expressed concerns about detention conditions of prisoners condemned for Mafia-related crimes. Several municipalities had permanent independent ombudsmen to promote the rights of detainees and facilitate access to health care and other services. The government provided access to detention centers for representatives of the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), and these visits were in accordance with the UNHCR's standard modalities.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The constitution prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> <span class="ds6">Role of the Police and Security Apparatus</span><br /> <br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Civilian authorities maintained effective control over the Carabinieri, the national police, the financial police, and municipal police forces. The government has effective mechanisms to investigate and punish abuse and corruption. There were no reports of impunity involving the security forces during the year; however, long delays by prosecutors and authorities in completing investigations of some cases of alleged abuse undercut the effectiveness of mechanisms to investigate and punish police abuses.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On July 14, a court sentenced two of eight Carabinieri arrested in Milan in 2006 for graft and evidence tampering to 30 to 66 months' imprisonment; it acquitted one of them. The eight reportedly used false evidence to extort money from a number of previous offenders.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">During the year Romani NGOs complained that many Roma lived in constant fear of systematic and invasive searches of their living areas, accompanied by threats of deportation.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">In 2008 the ECHR issued judgments that found two violations by the country of the right to liberty and security as provided by the European Convention on Human Rights.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Arrest Procedures and Treatment While in Detention</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">To detain an individual, police require a warrant issued by a public prosecutor unless a criminal act is in progress or there is a specific and immediate danger to which they must respond. When authorities detain a person without a warrant, an examining magistrate must decide within 24 hours of the detention whether there is enough evidence to proceed with an arrest. The investigating judge then has 48 hours to confirm the arrest and recommend whether to prosecute. In terrorism cases authorities may hold suspects 48 hours before bringing the case before a magistrate.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Authorities generally respected the right to a prompt judicial determination. The law entitles detainees to prompt and regular access to lawyers of their choosing and to family members. The state provides a lawyer to indigent persons. In exceptional circumstances, usually in cases of organized crime figures, in which there is danger that attorneys may attempt to tamper with evidence, the investigating judge may take up to five days to interrogate the accused before access to an attorney is permitted. Some human rights organizations asserted that the terrorism law is deficient in due process and in some cases resulted in the deportation or return of alien suspects to countries where they had reason to fear persecution. The law allows for increased surveillance and enhanced police powers to gather evidence in terrorism cases, for example, DNA for purposes of identification (see section 2.d.).</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Lengthy pretrial detention was a serious problem. During the first half of the year, 47 percent of all prisoners were either in pretrial detention or awaiting a final sentence. The maximum term of pretrial detention is from two to six years depending on the severity of the crime.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">There is no provision for bail; however, judges may grant provisional liberty to suspects awaiting trial. As a safeguard against unjustified detention, detainees may request that a panel of judges (liberty tribunal) review their cases on a regular basis and determine whether continued detention is warranted.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Authorities may impose preventive detention as a last resort if there is evidence of a serious felony or if the crime is associated with the Mafia or terrorism. Except in the most extraordinary situations, preventive detention is prohibited for pregnant women, single parents of children under age three, persons over age 70, and those who are seriously ill.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">e. Denial of Fair Public Trial</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected judicial independence in practice; however, most court cases involved long trial delays.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">There were some reports of judicial corruption.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Pressure on the judicial system, primarily in the form of intimidation of judges by organized crime groups, further complicated the judicial process. On July 4, authorities arrested six members of a criminal association in Trapani and charged them with attempted murder of a judge who had received letters containing bullets as well as explicit threats.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">There are three levels of courts. Civil and criminal trial courts use a single judge, a panel of judges, or a jury. There is a criminal and a civil appellate court with juries. Both sides may appeal decisions of the court of appeals to the highest court, the Court of Cassation in Rome. Prosecutors may in some instances challenge acquittals by appealing directly to the Court of Cassation, bypassing the intermediary appellate level. Such appeals may be based on the court's application of the law or, in some cases, on the evidence. A separate Constitutional Court hears cases involving conflicts between laws and the constitution or over the duties or powers of different units of government.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Nine military tribunals and nine prosecutor's offices are in charge of military crimes committed by members of the armed forces, such as treason, unauthorized release of state secrets, and espionage. An appeals court reviews challenges brought by defendants or prosecutors.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">In 2008 the ECHR found six violations by the country of the right to a fair trial as provided by the European Convention on Human Rights.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> <span class="ds6">Trial Procedures</span><br /> <br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The constitution provides for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. Trials are public. Defendants have access to an attorney in a timely manner. Defendants may confront and question witnesses against them and may present witnesses and evidence on their own behalf. Prosecutors must make evidence available to defendants and their attorneys upon request. Defendants have a presumption of innocence and the right to appeal verdicts.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">In December 2008 a Milan court acquitted and released Melchiorre Contena, who was arrested in 1977 and found guilty of kidnapping and homicide in 1979. He had spent more than 30 years in prison but was released due to inconsistencies in the testimony of the three other kidnappers involved.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Domestic and European institutions continued to criticize the slow pace of justice and cited 51 especially egregious cases in 2008. At the end of 2008, 4,200 petitions seeking compensation from the government for excessively long proceedings were pending in the ECHR. In addition, according to the Court of Cassation, about 30,000 new cases were initiated at the national level in 2008. Also in 2008, the Court of Cassation rendered 3,612 judgments against the government for excessively protracted proceedings. The president of the Court of Cassation indicated some reasons for delays, including the excessive number of trials, the lack of nonjudicial remedies, and insufficient and inadequate distribution of offices and resources, including an insufficient number of judges.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">In 2008 the ECHR found 51 violations by the country of the European Convention on Human Rights with respect to length of proceedings.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> <span class="ds6">Courts could determine when the statute of limitations should apply, and defendants often took advantage of the slow pace of justice to delay trials through extensive pleas and appeals.</span><br /> <br /> <span class="ds6">Political Prisoners and Detainees</span><br /> <br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The constitution provides for an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters. Civil remedies are determined by law, and arbitration is allowed and regulated by contracts. Often citizens and companies turned to arbitration because of trial delays.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">In 2008 the ECHR found eight violations by the country of the right to protection of property under the European Convention on Human Rights.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">f. Arbitrary Interference with Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The law prohibits such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Searches and electronic monitoring were generally permissible with judicial warrants and in carefully defined circumstances. The Court of Cassation's lead prosecutor may authorize wiretaps of terrorism suspects at the request of the prime minister.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The media published leaked transcripts of both legal and illegal government wiretaps during the year, including on Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On June 19, the national authority for the protection of privacy blocked the publication of photos featuring the prime minister and guests in his private residence.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The law allows magistrates to destroy illegal wiretaps discovered by police.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">In 2008 the ECHR found 13 violations by the country of the right to respect for private and family life as provided by the European Convention on Human Rights.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Section 2 Respect for Civil Liberties, Including:</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">a. Freedom of Speech and Press</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The constitution provides for the freedoms of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combined to ensure freedom of speech and the press.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On July 17, the ECHR determined that the country had violated freedom of expression in a case in which a journalist had been convicted for defamation of a local politician. In 2008 the ECHR found that the country had violated freedom of expression as provided by the European Convention on Human Rights. In 2002 the appeals court of Palermo sentenced Claudio Riolo, who had censured the conduct of the president of the province of Palermo in an article published by a local newspaper and reprinted by a national daily.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The independent media were active and expressed a wide variety of views. However, disputes over partisanship continued to prompt frequent political debate. The two main opposition parties and NGOs contended that media ownership was concentrated in too few hands. Prime Minister Berlusconi's family holding company, Fininvest, held a controlling share in the country's largest private television company, Mediaset; its largest magazine publisher, Mondadori; and its largest advertising company, Publitalia. His brother owned one of the country's nationwide dailies, Il Giornale.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The NGO Reporters without Borders and the journalists' union criticized several judicial actions against journalists and highlighted the threats and intimidation against journalists coming from criminal organizations in the south.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">In September 2008 police searched the home of three journalists from the magazine L'Espresso, which had published articles on ties between criminal organizations and politicians involved with trash collection in Naples. They allegedly published information about the case leaked from the prosecutor's office.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">During the year the National Federation of the Italian Press condemned what it described as excessive restrictions on freedom of expression. In May Freedom House's Freedom of the Press report showed a decline in the country's ranking from "free" to "partly free." In addition to the L'Espresso case, the National Federation of the Italian Press (NFIP) criticized RAI television, which was under the control of a parliamentary committee. RAI executives delayed transmission of a news analysis program, which was often critical of the Berlusconi government, in favor of broadcasting a special program highlighting the government's efforts to provide housing for those displaced by the L'Aquila earthquake in April.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">During the year public officials continued to bring cases against journalists under the country's libel laws. On August 28, Prime Minister Berlusconi filed a libel suit against the daily La Repubblica for the publication of a list of leading questions over a period of months. Some of the provocative questions played off personal issues that became public as Berlusconi's wife asked for a divorce.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On September 2, Prime Minister Berlusconi sued the daily L'Unita for libel for printing two unfavorable articles on his private life in July and August. Berlusconi sought three million euros ($4.3 million) in damages.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">In November 2008 a judge found journalist Marco Travaglio guilty of libel against former minister Cesare Previti for an article published by L'Espresso in 2002 suggesting he and his political party, Forza Italia, had direct links with the Mafia.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">In the view of most observers the risk of such suits did not affect adversely the willingness of the press to report on politically sensitive subjects.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Internet Freedom</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">A special unit of the police monitored Web sites for crimes involving child pornography online. The government could request other governments to block foreign-based Internet sites if they contravened national laws. As an antiterrorism measure, authorities required that Internet cafe operators obtain licenses. According to Eurostat, in 2008, 47 percent of citizens had access to the Internet at home.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">In October a Facebook "community" inciting violence against Prime Minister Berlusconi emerged. The judiciary sought to define a balanced approach to dealing with such overt threats.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Academic Freedom and Cultural Events</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The constitution provides for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">c. Freedom of Religion</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">There is no state religion; however, the concordat between the Roman Catholic Church and the government gives the Catholic Church certain privileges. For example, it may select Catholic religion teachers, whose earnings the government paid. In accordance with the law, the government had understandings with organizations representing non-Catholic religions pursuant to accords that allow the government to support them (including financially), including the Confederation of Methodist and Waldensian Churches, Adventists, Assembly of God, Jews, Baptists, and Lutherans. At year's end, the current government had not yet reviewed and submitted to the parliament for ratification other accords negotiated by the previous government with the Buddhist Union, Jehovah's Witnesses, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Apostolic Church, the Orthodox Church of the Constantinople Patriarchate, and the Hindu community.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Muslims in some locations continued to encounter difficulties in getting permission to construct mosques and other community buildings. In December 2008 the Islamic Center of Milan received approval for a plan to enlarge its mosque after seeking permission for several years. Although local officials usually cited other grounds for refusing building permits, some Muslims asserted that hostility toward their religion underlay the difficulties. The efforts of Northern League members of parliament to seek legislation to restrict building additional mosques furthered a hostile attitude toward Muslims.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">There were occasional reports that government officials or the public objected to women wearing garments that completely covered the face and body. In August a northern town banned "burkinis" from its public pool. The mayor claimed the full-body swimsuit could disturb small children. He added that such swimwear could be a potential violation of pool hygiene rules.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The presence of Catholic symbols, such as crucifixes, in courtrooms, schools, and other public buildings continued to be a source of criticism and lawsuits. In February the Ministry of Education suspended a teacher for a month because he removed the crucifix from his classroom in Perugia.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On November 3, the ECHR determined that the display of crucifixes in schools in the country violated the separation of church and state. The ruling was nonbinding and was met with wide disapproval in the country. An appeal was pending at year's end.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> <span class="ds6">Societal Abuses and Discrimination</span><br /> <br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Denial of the Holocaust is a crime punishable by up to four years in prison. There were no reports of any prosecutions under this law during the year. The country's approximately 30,000 Jews maintained synagogues in 21 cities. No violent anti-Semitic attacks were reported during the year, but societal prejudices persisted, manifested largely by anti-Semitic graffiti in a number of cities. Small extremist fringe groups were responsible for anti-Semitic acts.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On January 23, 22 shops owned by Jews were the target of vandalistic attacks in Rome by the fascist group Militia, which left a banner urging a boycott of Jewish shops.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The government condemned the anti-Semitic vandalism. Prime Minister Berlusconi, foreign minister Franco Frattini, and other politicians across the political spectrum expressed solidarity with the victims and their intent to fight prejudice and violence at the national and international levels. There were no reported arrests in connection with the attacks by year's end. Addressing the presidents of major American Jewish associations, Berlusconi confirmed "the commitment of Italy to ... fight all forms of anti-Semitism."</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The government continued to host an annual meeting to increase educational awareness of the Holocaust and to combat anti-Semitism.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">There were also instances of discrimination and violence against Muslims. In June 2008 two homemade bombs thrown at the Milan Islamic Center damaged the main gate.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">For a more detailed discussion, see the 2009 Report on International Religious Freedom at </span><span class="ds6"></span><span class="ds3">www.state.gov/g/drl/irf/rpt</span><span class="ds6">.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The constitution provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The government cooperated with the UNHCR and other humanitarian organizations to protect and assist refugees, asylum seekers, stateless persons, and other persons of concern.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> <span class="ds6">Protection of Refugees</span><br /> <br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The country is a party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 protocol. The law provides for the granting of asylum or refugee status, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. The country is a party to the EU's Dublin II Instruction, whose partners generally transfer asylum applications to the first member country in which the applicant arrived. In practice the government provided protection against the expulsion or return of refugees to countries where their lives or freedom would be threatened.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The government also provided temporary protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees under the 1951 convention and the 1967 protocol. In 2008, 4,431 persons received such protection. Between January and August, 1,246 immigrants were granted asylum status, and 1,387 obtained humanitarian protection. According to the UNHCR, the top three countries of origin of persons granted temporary protection were Eritrea, Nigeria, and Somalia.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The government provided temporary protection to refugees fleeing hostilities or natural disasters. The government granted such refugees temporary residence permits which had to be renewed periodically and did not ensure future permanent residence.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Between May 1 and September 22, the Ministry of the Interior identified 1,800 individuals who came ashore illegally from North Africa, compared to 18,800 in the same period of 2008. Those who were apprehended were sent to temporary detention centers for processing, and a magistrate determined whether they would be deported (if their identity could be ascertained), issued an order to depart (if their identity could not be ascertained), or accepted for asylum processing.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">According to Save the Children, between May 2008 and February 2009, 1,994 unaccompanied minors and 300 accompanied underage migrants came ashore in Lampedusa; 1,680 were hosted in protected communities but 1,119 of them fled. The Interior Ministry equipped special sections of identification centers to host minors.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On July 2, the parliament approved a law that criminalizes illegal immigration. It is punishable by a fine and an immediate order to leave the country. The law also permits the creation of unarmed citizen patrol groups to help police keep order.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">In August 2008 the government signed an agreement with Libya that includes provisions for patrolling the Libyan coast by Italian and Libyan officers using Italian boats. The controversial agreement allows all immigrants departing from the Libyan coast, not only Libyan nationals, to be turned back before they reach the country's soil. On May 7, under the new agreement, the Italian coast guard escorted to Libya 227 immigrants whom it stopped in the Strait of Sicily. Similar operations continued over the summer and produced a dramatic decrease in the number of immigrants who reached the country's shores.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On September 23, the minister of the interior stated that in the first four months of cooperation with Libya, the country's authorities stopped four boats and sent back 834 persons attempting to reach the country. He claimed that the new measures prevented over 17,000 migrants from departing Libya in their attempt to reach the country. There were claims from some of the persons transferred to vessels for return to Libya that the country's officials used force in the process.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The Council of Europe's commissioner for human rights and the UNHCR criticized the country's new policy of repatriation of immigrants to Libya. There were concerns that authorities returned immigrants who may have been eligible for asylum in Europe to a country that has not signed international conventions on protection of refugees. In addition, Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International criticized the government for its failure to screen foreigners and to identify refugees, unaccompanied minors, and victims of trafficking.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">In July the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CPT) visited the country to examine the government's new policy of intercepting migrants approaching by sea from the south and returning them to Libya. By year's end, the CPT had not published its report.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Section 3 Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> <span class="ds6">The constitution provides citizens with the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections held on the basis of universal suffrage.</span><br /> <br /> <span class="ds6">Elections and Political Participation</span><br /> <br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">National and international experts, including the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, considered the April 2008 parliamentary elections free and fair.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On June 6 and 7, the country held elections to the European Parliament that were considered free and fair.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Numerous political parties functioned without government restrictions or outside interference.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">There were 58 women in the 322-seat Senate and 134 women in the 630-seat Chamber of Deputies. Women held five of 23 positions in the Council of Ministers.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The only legally defined minorities were linguistic: the French-speaking Valdostani and the German-speaking Altoatesini/Suedtiroler. There were four members of these groups in the Senate and three in the Chamber of Deputies. In a largely monolithic society, immigrants represented approximately 5 percent of the population, and fewer than half of these qualified as ethnic/racial minorities. Two members of immigrant groups (of Moroccan and Congolese origin) were elected to the Chamber of Deputies.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">In 2008 the ECHR found that the country had violated the right to free elections as provided by the European Convention on Human Rights.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> <span class="ds6">Section 4 Official Corruption and Government Transparency</span><br /> <br /> <span class="ds6">The law provides criminal penalties for official corruption, and the government generally implemented these laws effectively.</span><br /> <br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The anticorruption and transparency office in the Ministry of Public Administration acts as the government watchdog on corruption.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">According to the national audit court (corte dei conti), courts in 2008 convicted 68 persons on corruption charges and recovered 117 million euros ($167 million). In 2008 financial and carabinieri police found sufficient cause to refer to prosecutors 5,361 cases of public officials suspected of such crimes as corruption, graft, abuse of power, and embezzlement, while 68 public employees were convicted of corruption.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">There continued to be isolated reports of government corruption during the year. According to the ministries of interior and justice, in 2006 prosecutors charged 925 individuals with corruption; courts convicted 130 persons of corruption. Prosecutors charged 2,725 persons with abuse of authority; courts convicted 45 persons of abuse of authority. Prosecutors charged 2,725 with embezzlement.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On October 9, the Constitutional Court ruled that the July 2008 legislation granting immunity from prosecution to the four highest government officials was unconstitutional.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On June 11, Palermo prosecutors began investigating two politicians believed to have helped a Mafia-owned company secure natural gas distribution concessions from the regional government of Sicily. Majority party senator Carlo Vizzini and European parliamentarian Salvatore Cintola of one opposition party allegedly collaborated with at least two other politicians.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">In July 2008 authorities arrested Abruzzo governor Ottaviano Del Turco and a number of other local officials and charged them with corruption, embezzlement, fraud, and abuse of power in a case allegedly involving 12.8 million euros ($18.3 million) in the health care sector. Prosecutors have requested the indictment of Del Turco, and the decision of preliminary investigation judges was expected in spring 2010.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The law gives citizens the right to access government documents and to be informed of administrative processes. With some security-related exceptions, the government and local authorities respected this right in practice for citizens, noncitizens, and the foreign press.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Section 5 Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">A variety of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were cooperative and responsive to their views.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Section 6 Discrimination, Societal Abuse, and Trafficking in Persons</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, ethnic background, and political opinion. It provides some protection against discrimination based on disability, language, or social status. The government generally enforced these prohibitions; however, some societal discrimination continued against women, persons with disabilities, immigrants, and Roma.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Women</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Rape, including spousal rape, is illegal, and the government enforced the law effectively. In 2008, according to the Ministry of Interior, 4,637 cases of rape were reported, and police identified 8,845 assailants.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Violence against women, including spousal abuse, remained a problem. In 2007 the Italian National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT) reported that 6.7 million women aged 16 to 70, or 32 percent of all women, had been victims of violence at least once in their lives. Five million women were victims of sexual violence, one million of them of rape or attempted rape. ISTAT estimated that in 2006 there were 74,000 cases of rape or attempted rape, of which 4,500 were reported to the police. Partners reportedly committed approximately 23 percent of sexual abuses. According to the Ministry of Interior, from June 2008 through July 2009, 5,556 cases of sexual abuses were reported to police.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The law criminalizes the physical abuse of women, including by family members; allows for the prosecution of perpetrators of violence against women; and helps abused women avoid publicity. ISTAT reported 113 killings of women by their current or ex-partners in 2008. Law enforcement and judicial authorities prosecuted perpetrators of violence against women, but victims frequently declined to press charges due to fear, shame, or ignorance of the law.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On July 17, the Ministry of Equal Opportunity established a hotline for victims of stalking, in addition to the hotline for victims of violence seeking immediate assistance and temporary shelter. From February 23 through October, 3,247 cases of stalking were reported to the Ministry of Equal Opportunity hotline. Police received 4,124 stalking complaints and made 723 arrests. From March 2006 through 2007, 16,700 women reported episodes of violence to this hotline, and half of them requested assistance. The NGO Telefono Rosa assisted 1,744 victims of violence, 287 of whom were foreigners. The NGO ACMID-Donna established a toll-free number for abused Muslim women and received 5,500 calls from November 2008 through August 2009. Approximately 82 percent of those cases involved violence or other mistreatment by husbands or relatives, including unwillingly being in a polygamous marriage, a situation affecting an estimated 14,000 women.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">There were occasional reports of "honor crimes" and forced marriage. In June 2008 a 16-year-old Moroccan girl living in Piacenza simulated her own kidnapping to avoid a forced marriage arranged by her family. The intended groom was a Moroccan man over 60 years old and living in France.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">In September police in Pordenone took a 45-year-old Moroccan man into custody on suspicion of murdering his daughter, Saana Dafani. The father was upset over his 18-year-old daughter's relationship with a 31-year-old Italian man. </span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Female genital mutilation is a crime punishable by up to 10 years' imprisonment. The government estimated that 35,000 women were victims of genital mutilation, 1,100 of whom were age 17 and younger. An interagency committee of the Department of Equal Opportunity in charge of combating female genital mutilation implemented a prevention program that included an awareness campaign for immigrants, an analysis of risks, and training of cultural mediators. On November 9, the Ministry of Equal Opportunity inaugurated a hotline dedicated to victims of such mutilation.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On June 11, the NGO Arci launched a campaign against genital mutilation in collaboration with migrant women's associations in Rome, Florence, and Turin.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Prostitution is legal in private residences; the law prohibits pimping, brothels, and similar commercial enterprises. The trafficking of women for sexual exploitation remained a problem. In 2008, according to the Ministry of Interior, 4,350 persons were charged with trafficking in persons and pandering.</span><br /> <span class="ds6">The law permits domestic courts to try citizens and permanent residents who engage in sex tourism outside of the country, even if the offense is not a crime in the country in which it occurred. According to the domestic branch of End Child Prostitution, Child Pornography, and Trafficking of Children for Sexual Purposes (ECPAT Italy), in recent years sex tourists from the country made Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Czech Republic, Northern Russia, and Brazil preferred destinations.</span><br /> <br /> <span class="ds6">The country has a code of conduct for tourist agencies to help combat sex tourism.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Sexual harassment is illegal, and the government effectively enforced the law. By government decree emotional abuse based on gender discrimination is a crime.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Couples and individuals had the right to decide the number, spacing, and timing of children, and had the information and means to do so free from discrimination. Access to information on contraception, and skilled attendance at delivery and in postpartum care were widely available. Women and men were given equal access to diagnostic services and treatment for sexually transmitted infections.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The law gives women the same rights as men, including rights under family law, property law, and in the judicial system.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">According to an independent research center, the overall gap between salaries for men and women was 16 percent, although a study released in July estimated the gap between men and women with the same jobs and qualifications was 2 percent. Women were underrepresented in many fields, including management, entrepreneurial business, and other professions. Although 36 percent of lawyers were women, no women were members of the prestigious National Council of Lawyers. Although 60 percent of doctors were women, only 14 percent of the heads of local health authorities were women.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The parliament ratified a new law ending discrimination in the retirement age between men and women. Previously, women could retire at 60, five years earlier than men. The European Commission found the rule illegal in 2008, and the country enacted the new law to be in compliance.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">A number of government offices worked to ensure women's rights, including the Ministry for Equal Opportunity and the Equal Opportunity Commission in the Prime Minister's Office. The Ministry of Labor and Welfare has a similar commission that focuses on women's rights and discrimination in the workplace. Many NGOs, most of them affiliated with labor unions or political parties, actively and effectively promoted women's rights.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Children</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Citizenship is derived from one's parents (jus sanguinis). Citizenship is not derived by birth within the country's territory. Local authorities registered all births immediately.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">In 2008 Telefono Azzurro, an NGO that advocates for children's rights, received 304,774 calls and 3,230 requests for assistance. Of these, an estimated 6 percent involved sexual abuse, and 18 percent physical violence. In 56 percent of the cases, the victims were female; 44 percent of the victims were younger than 10. In 2006 authorities registered approximately 170 reports of sexual intercourse with minors, 290 reports of production of child pornography, and 180 reports of possession of child pornography.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">NGOs estimated that 10 percent of persons engaged in prostitution were minors. An independent research center estimated that approximately 30,000 minors entered the country illegally in 2008, of whom about 8,000 were sheltered in protected communities. Of those, 80 percent left the communities without authorization.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On February 25, Carabinieri officers arrested 11 Bulgarian Roma accused of trafficking minors from Bulgaria to Western European countries. Victims were forced to marry other Roma and to commit crimes such as shoplifting, pickpocketing, and burglary.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On May 24, the minister of interior announced the establishment of a new hotline run by Telefono Azzuro, dedicated to helping find minors who disappeared and assisting those who ran away. In 2008 there were 1,330 runaways, of whom 998 were not citizens of the country.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On January 21, authorities arrested an Italian in Thailand for the third time of having had sex with minors. On May 19, authorities arrested a 60-year-old Italian in Thailand and accused him on the same grounds.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Illegal immigrant child laborers from North Africa, West Africa, the Philippines, and China continued to enter the country. The flow of children from Albania dropped dramatically, possibly due to improved economic conditions for Albania and increased law enforcement cooperation between the country and Albania.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Few of the country's children engaged in prostitution for survival. However, independent research center Parsec has reported that thousands of minors from Eastern Europe engaged in prostitution for survival. Prostitution under the age of 18 is against the law, but no penalty is specified.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The country, which has a statutory rape law, is not a destination for sex tourism. The minimum age for consensual sex varies from 13 to 16 years old based on the relationship between partners. The penalty for child pornography ranges from six to 12 years in prison, and the penalty for violation of the law regarding the minimum age for consensual sex ranges from two to 10 years in prison.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">A special unit of the police monitored 26,600 Web sites during the year; the unit investigated 1,155 persons for crimes involving child pornography online and arrested 51. According to the NGO Telefono Arcobaleno, 6.5 percent of those accessing pornographic materials involving minors worldwide were from the country.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Trafficking in Persons</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The law prohibits all forms of trafficking in persons; however, trafficking in persons was a problem. Persons were trafficked to, from, through and within the country. According to NGO sources, the number of new victims trafficked in 2008 was an estimated 2,800.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The country was a destination and transit country for women, children, and men trafficked internationally for the purposes of commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor. Women and children were trafficked for forced prostitution mainly from Nigeria, Romania, Bulgaria, Moldova, Albania, Ukraine, Russia, South America, North and East Africa, the Middle East, China, and Uzbekistan. Chinese men and women were trafficked to the country for the purpose of forced labor. Romani children continued to be trafficked for the purposes of sexual exploitation and forced begging. Men were trafficked for the purpose of forced labor, mostly in the agricultural sector in southern Italy but also in sweatshops around the country. According to one NGO, 90 percent of foreign seasonal workers were unregistered, and two-thirds were in the country illegally, rendering them vulnerable to trafficking. The top five source countries for agricultural workers, from where forced labor victims were likely found, were Poland, Romania, Pakistan, Albania, and Cote d'Ivoire.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Between one-quarter and one-third of women trafficked for prostitution came from Romania, according to the Ministry for Equal Opportunity. Parsec estimated that the large majority of persons engaged in prostitution were immigrants primarily from Romania, Nigeria, Bulgaria, Ukraine, China, Moldova, and Russia. A large number of women entered the country voluntarily and were subsequently obliged to engage in prostitution to repay smugglers. The average age of victims declined, and an increasing number of victims were trafficked for labor outside the sex industry, particularly in the agriculture and service sectors. Immigrants, mostly from Nigeria, North Africa, China, and Eastern Europe, played a major role in trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation, both as traffickers and as victims, although citizens were also involved.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On February 11, police arrested and accused three Romanians and an Italian of trafficking, raping and abusing a Romanian girl. They enticed the girl from her home village with the bogus offer of a caretaker's job in Sicily. The Romanians stole her passport, isolated her, and repeatedly raped her over a 20-day period. Then, the Italian physically abused her as part of his successful attempt to force her into prostitution.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">NGOs and independent experts reported that traffickers became more sophisticated in lowering the profile of their illicit activities. Due to increased enforcement efforts, traffickers moved their victims away from street prostitution and towards conducting their activities in hotels, clubs, discos, and other less visible venues. This shift made it more difficult for authorities to identify trafficking victims.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The law provides prison sentences of eight to 20 years for trafficking or enslavement. If the victims are minors, sentences increase by one-third to one-half. The law mandates special prison conditions for traffickers that limit their ability to continue their operations while incarcerated.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">According to the Ministry of Justice, authorities investigated 2,738 persons for trafficking in 2008 and arrested 365; trial courts convicted 138 persons, and appeal courts convicted 148.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The government cooperated with foreign governments, including those of Romania, Nigeria, Ukraine, Bulgaria, and Moldova, to investigate and prosecute trafficking cases. Because police had difficulty in meeting the law's evidentiary standards in some trafficking cases, authorities relied on enforcement of immigration law to stop trafficking.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">There were no reports during the year that government officials participated in, facilitated, or condoned trafficking.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The law provides temporary residence or work permits to trafficked persons seeking to escape their exploiters. Authorities and NGOs encouraged trafficking victims to file complaints, and there were no legal impediments to their doing so. Unlike most other illegal immigrants, who face deportation if apprehended, persons who qualify as trafficking victims under the law receive benefits, including legal residence, whether or not they file a complaint. However, the UNHCR and NGOs criticized the government for not always allowing enough time between apprehension and deportation of illegal immigrants to screen them as possible trafficking victims.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The government provided legal and medical assistance, access to shelters, and job training to persons identified by authorities as victims of trafficking. In 2006 the government assisted 7,300 women. There were also assistance and incentive programs for those willing to return to their native countries; in 2006, 62 victims who chose to return to their home countries were repatriated.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The law empowers magistrates to seize convicted traffickers' assets to finance legal assistance, vocational training, and other social integration assistance for trafficking victims.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The government worked with foreign governments and NGOs to organize trafficking awareness campaigns. The law directs the Foreign Ministry, working with the Ministry of Equal Opportunity, to conclude antitrafficking agreements with trafficking source countries.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The Department of State's annual Trafficking in Persons Report can be found at </span><span class="ds6"></span><span class="ds3">www.state.gov/g/tip</span><span class="ds6">.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Persons with Disabilities</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and the provision of other state services. The government effectively enforced these provisions, but there was some societal discrimination.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Although the law mandates access to government buildings for persons with disabilities, mechanical barriers, particularly in public transport, left such persons at a disadvantage. The Ministry of Labor and Welfare was responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities. Many cities lacked infrastructure (such as elevators at subway and funicular stations and ramps on sidewalks) for persons with limited mobility and those in wheelchairs.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Independent research centers estimated there were approximately 2.8 million persons with disabilities.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">There continued to be reports that authorities mistreated Roma. The NGOs International and National Union of Roma and Sinti in Italy (UNIRSI) and Opera Nomadi reported cases of discrimination, particularly in housing and evictions, deportations, and government efforts to remove Romani children from their parents for their protection. Government officials at the national and local levels, including those from the Interior Ministry and the Ministry of Equal Opportunity, met periodically with Roma and their representatives.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">During the year the Interior Ministry continued a campaign to crack down on illegal immigration based on a May 2008 emergency decree on security and immigration. Authorities arrested or expelled several hundred foreigners and took the names of others who lived in encampments near major cities.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On August 5, the Supreme Administrative Court ruled that local authorities were permitted to collect personal data on Roma who live in authorized camps.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">A census of Roma in authorized camps registered 7,200 inhabitants. Authorities closed a few unauthorized encampments and sheltered hundreds of Roma in temporary facilities.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">There were no accurate statistics on the number of Roma in the country. NGOs estimated that 140,000, including 75,000 citizens, were concentrated on the fringes of urban areas in the central and southern parts of the country. Romani camps were characterized by poor housing, unhygienic sanitary conditions, limited employment prospects, inadequate educational facilities, and inconsistent police presence.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">According to the European Fundamental Rights Agency, the majority of North African immigrants living in the country believed that they were discriminated against and mistreated by police because of their ethnicity.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On January 25, authorities arrested and charged three persons for the October 2008 "hate crime" killing of Mohamed Chamrani, a Moroccan who had been beaten and thrown into Lake Garda.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On June 25, near Milan, five members of a family, including a 70-year-old woman, assaulted and injured in a dispute over a parking spot a 64-year-old citizen of the country who had emigrated from Egypt. Before beating him, the man's attackers shouted that he should return to where he came from. His injuries, including broken ribs, required hospitalization.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The government's Office to Combat Racial and Ethnic Discrimination in the Ministry of Equal Opportunity assisted victims of discrimination. In 2007 the office received about 8,000 calls on its national hotline. The majority of complaints related to labor conditions, wages, and discrimination in the provision of public services. The office provided legal assistance and helped mediate disputes.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Societal Abuses, Discrimination, and Acts of Violence Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity</span><br /> <br /> <span class="ds6">There were no laws criminalizing homosexuality. An official from the NGO Arcigay reported police maintained order at several gay pride events, including a march through Rome. Arcigay reported the group was granted permits for the events. The Rome police department has created a special unit to investigate reports of crimes based on sexual orientation.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">There were reports of societal discrimination based on sexual orientation.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Arcigay reported eight killings and 52 nonlethal attacks on lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) persons between January and September, compared to nine killings and 45 other attacks in 2008. Several of the crimes were described as domestic disputes. Between May and September, several acts of vandalism were committed against bars and discos catering mainly to LGBT clientele.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Other Societal Violence or Discrimination</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">There were no reports of violence or discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDs.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Section 7 Worker Rights</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">a. The Right of Association</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The law provides for the right to establish, join, and carry out union activities in the workplace without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and workers exercised these rights in practice. The law prohibits union organization in the armed forces. Unions claimed to represent between 35 and 40 percent of the workforce.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The law provides for the right to strike, and workers exercised this right by conducting legal strikes. The law restricts strikes affecting essential public services (such as transport, sanitation, and health) by requiring longer advance notification and precluding multiple strikes within days of each other.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">In February the government approved a bill to restrict transport strikes. Only those unions representing at least half the workforce can call transport strikes.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. The law provides for the right of workers to organize and bargain collectively, and workers exercised this right. Approximately 35 percent of the workforce worked under collective bargaining agreements.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Antiunion discrimination is illegal, and the government effectively enforced labor laws. Employees fired for union activity have the right to request their reinstatement. There were no reported cases of discrimination.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">There are no export processing zones.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The free-trade-zone law allows a company of any nationality to employ workers of the same nationality under that country's labor laws and social security systems.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children, and the government enforced such laws; however, there were reports such practices occurred. Women were trafficked for sexual exploitation, Romani children for sexual exploitation and begging, and workers for agricultural labor or to work in sweatshops manufacturing counterfeit products.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Parsec estimated that approximately 500 victims of labor trafficking worked outside the sex industry, mainly in domestic, agricultural, or service labor. Forced labor occurred primarily in the agricultural sector and mostly in the south where, according to the NGO Doctors without Borders, a large majority of the foreign seasonal workers were unregistered and did not hold residence permits.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">On March 12, Carabinieri police announced the arrest of nine Egyptians and one Moroccan accused of trafficking in persons for labor exploitation. Traffickers smuggled hundreds of North Africans from Libya, facilitated their escape from temporary centers, provided fake documents, and forced them to work illegally in a cleaning company near Milan.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">"Operation Viola," coordinated by the national anti-Mafia prosecutor, continued during the year. On April 20, police arrested 49 persons from a criminal association based mainly in Campania for trafficking drugs and children. The minors, all from Nigeria, were threatened and forced into prostitution in various regions of Colombia, Turkey, Bulgaria, and the Netherlands.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Chinese men and women were trafficked to the country for forced labor. At the end of the year, the trial was still pending of a Chinese entrepreneur charged in March 2008 with abetting illegal immigration and exploiting 47 Chinese victims including six minors and two pregnant women working and living in a sweatshop near Reggio Emilia.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The government sought to enforce laws and policies designed to protect children from exploitation in the workplace; however, there were a number of reports of child labor.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The law prohibits employment of children under age 15 with some limited exceptions, and there are specific restrictions on employment in hazardous or unhealthy occupations for boys under the age of 18 and girls under the age of 21. Enforcement was generally effective in the formal economy; however, it was difficult in the extensive informal economy.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Illegal immigrant child laborers, mostly from 15 to 18 years of age, continued to enter the country from North Africa, the Philippines, and China. They worked primarily in the manufacturing and services industries. Most arrived with their parents; however, according to the NGO Terre des Homes there were about 24,000 unaccompanied minors.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">Children were trafficked for sexual exploitation and begging. The minister of interior estimated that minors represented 20 percent of the total victims of trafficking and smuggling from Romania; of those, three out of four were engaged in prostitution. In 2007 about 300 minors were trafficking victims, according to the Ministry for Equal Opportunity. National and local authorities provide minor victims automatic residency permits (valid until age 18) and access to education and other assistance programs. On September 30, according to the Ministry of Welfare, 6,587 unaccompanied minors were registered, 74 percent of whom were hosted in protected communities.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The government, employers' associations, and unions continued their tripartite cooperation to combat child labor. The Ministry of Labor and Welfare, working with police and Carabinieri, is responsible for enforcement of child labor laws, but their efforts were often ineffective.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">e. Acceptable Conditions of Work</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The law does not specify a minimum wage; it provides for it to be set through collective bargaining agreements on a sector-by-sector basis. The minimum wage in most industries provided a decent standard of living for a worker and family. Courts effectively enforced the wages set through collective bargaining agreements, but workers in the informal sector often worked for less than the analogous minimum wage in the formal sector.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <p class="ds1"><span class="ds6">The legal workweek is 40 hours. Overtime work may not exceed two hours per day or an average of 12 hours per week. Unless limited by a collective bargaining agreement, the law sets maximum overtime hours in industrial sector firms at no more than 80 per quarter and 250 annually. The law requires rest periods of one day per week and 11 hours per day. Premium pay is required for overtime. These standards were effectively enforced.</span><br /> </p> <p class="ds5"><br /> </p> <span class="ds6">The law sets basic health and safety standards and guidelines for compensation for on-the-job injuries. There were labor inspectors in both the public health service and the Ministry of Labor and Welfare, but their numbers were insufficient to ensure adequate enforcement of health and safety standards. The standards were not enforced in the informal economy. According to the Workmen's Compensation Institute, in 2008 there were 1,120 work-related deaths. Workers have the right to remove themselves from dangerous work situations without jeopardizing their continued employment, and the government effectively enforced this right.</span>Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-17183116742739066762010-06-13T04:53:00.001-07:002010-06-13T04:59:45.631-07:00Italy - Education And Gender Roles<span class="submitted">Published on the 18 May 2010</span> <span class="print-link"></span><div class="field field-type-text field-field-subtitle"> <div class="field-items"> <div class="field-item odd"> The History of American Women </div> </div> </div> <div class="field field-type-filefield field-field-teaserimage"> <div class="field-items"> <div class="field-item odd"> <img src="http://fivebooks.com/files/imagecache/300x200_interview_teaser/interview-teasers/feminism-usa-women-history.jpg" alt="" title="" class="imagecache imagecache-300x200_interview_teaser imagecache-default imagecache-300x200_interview_teaser_default" width="300" height="200" /> </div> </div> </div> <p> <b>Your first book is <i>Little Women</i> by Louisa May Alcott. </b><br /> <br /> This is an iconic American text. It was written in the years immediately following the American Civil War. Alcott presents a portrait of a northern family of women managing on their own while their husband/father is serving as an army chaplain. This classic work contains a powerful message to young women, namely that they do not have to marry in order to achieve success. Jo is one of the first in a long line of what might be described as ‘plucky’ heroines who follow their own destiny. She doesn’t end up marrying her leading man in this book although she finally does in a later volume.<br /> <br /> Nancy Drew is another series which follows in those footsteps. The book is all led by her. I think if one looks in the magazine literature it would be hard to find a similar character at that time. These were stories initially published in a magazine and then bound together as a book.<br /> <br /> Alcott was one of the first professional women authors and she had a very interesting life herself having served as a nurse in an army hospital during the Civil War. Her father was a leading social innovator who joined one of the first social communities which didn’t last very long because, while the men were off thinking their thoughts and communing with nature, the women’s lives didn’t change at all!<br /> <br /> <b>How did you feel when you read this book?</b><br /> <br /> What it meant to me is something I wasn’t aware of at the time, but later I came to recognise this ‘can do’ spirit which is terrifically American. As a girl growing up in New York in the 50s and 60s I absorbed this notion of enterprising activism, of being the leader rather than a follower. And I think that is what this whole genre of girls’ stories is all about: women and girls taking charge of their own lives.</p>Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-84037663493270432352010-06-13T04:53:00.000-07:002010-06-13T04:58:20.073-07:00Italy - Education And Gender Roles<p>Italian women attend high school more successfully than do Italian men, and also more frequently. In 1950 only 7 percent of girls between the ages of fourteen and seventeen went to school, while 12 percent of boys did. In 1998-99 84 percent of the girls and 81 percent of the boys attended high schools. At university level women outnumbered men by the late 1990s. The increased level of education of Italian women helps to explain the greater presence of women in the labor market. However, Italian women are still well below the levels of other European and American countries (in 1999, 35.3% of Italian women aged fifteen and older were employed outside the home).</p> <p>Women's traditional role of wife and mother is no longer appealing, and young housewives perceive their situation more as a necessity than as a choice. Working mothers declare themselves more satisfied than housewives and mothers, although they are weighed down by an enormous amount of work when one adds the work in the house to the work outside: 35 percent of young working mothers spend more than seventy hours working per week, and more than half, including those who work more than seventy, work more than sixty hours per week.</p> <p>Italian men contribute very little to housework and childcare. The relations between husband and wife within the family are still very traditional, with a rigid separation of gender roles. Even children are asked to do very little housework, and gender differences are still present in the expectations of sons and daughters in helping with the housework: Boys are asked and expected to do less housework, have more freedom, and are less controlled by parents than are girls.</p> <p>That Italian men contribute very little to housework and childcare may partially explain why Italy is experiencing a strong reduction in the number of children per couple among young couples. Italian mothers, unlike those of other western European and Western countries, do not leave the labor market even temporarily after having a child. The rigidity of the Italian labor market makes it extremely difficult, if not impossible, for mothers with young children to re-enter the job market, even after only a few years out. These mothers are not attractive to employers, who prefer men or childless women. Furthermore, part-time jobs are not common, and families have serious difficulties in living on only one salary. Therefore, the reproductive strategies of Italian families have changed, drastically reducing the number of children. This is compounded by the limited participation of the husband in childrearing and housework. Typically, a woman waits to get a good job, and after which it becomes very complicated to have more than one child without giving up the job.</p> <p>Marriage and maternity are delayed to accomplish different goals: graduation from high school and university and the attainment of a stable occupation. These deep transformations are visible in the data from the Italian National Institute of Statistics (Istat 1998) on mothers with small children. The majority of women who have at least one small baby (0-2 years old) are working mothers (47.4 percent) while 42.8 percent are housewives. In the north of Italy 63.1 percent of mothers of young children are working; in the center 54.95 percent; while in the south the figure is only 31 percent, with 53.7 percent of the mothers as housewives.</p>Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-78410832242141448272010-06-13T04:51:00.000-07:002010-06-13T04:53:17.702-07:00Women Rights in Italy<div id="tier3-landing-content-wide"><div id="middlecolumn"><div id="centerblock"><p align="left">The law sets basic health and safety standards and guidelines for compensation for on‑the‑job injuries. There were labor inspectors in both the public health service and the Ministry of Labor, but their numbers were insufficient to ensure adequate enforcement of health and safety standards. The standards were not enforced in the significant unofficial economy. Workers have the right to remove themselves from dangerous work situations without jeopardizing their continued employment, and the government effectively enforced this right.<!-- BEGIN TITLE --> <span>Italy</span><!-- END TITLE --><br /><span class="releasing_office">Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor<br /></span> <span class="date_of_report__year_only_">2006<br /></span> <span class="date">March 6, 2007</span><br />Italy is a multiparty parliamentary democracy with a population of approximately 58.4 million. The bicameral parliament consists of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. National parliamentary elections, which determine who will be president and prime minister, were held in April and were considered free and fair. A center‑left coalition led by Prime Minister Romano Prodi replaced the center‑right coalition led by former prime minister Silvio Berlusconi. The parliament elected Giorgio Napolitano as the new president. The civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces.<br />The government generally respected the human rights of its citizens, although there were problems in some areas. Despite extensive delays, the law and judiciary otherwise provided effective means of addressing individual instances of abuse. Journalists and prosecutors increased their criticisms of police behavior and filed a greater number of cases against them for various crimes. Lengthy pretrial detention, excessively long court proceedings, violence against women, trafficking in persons, and abuse of Roma remained problems.<br />Parliament adopted a law reducing the prison sentences for minor crimes committed before May 2, a measure that resulted in the release of 17,400 prisoners and significantly reduced prison overcrowding.<br />RESPECT FOR HUMAN RIGHTS<br />Section 1 Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From:<br />a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life<br />The government or its agents did not commit any politically motivated killings, and courts and investigators dealt with earlier killings by government agents and with politically motivated killings by nongovernmental actors.<br />In 2005 a police officer in Turin shot and killed a Senegalese immigrant who refused to exit his vehicle during a drug search. The incident was under investigation at year's end.<br />In March a court sentenced each of seven police officers in Naples to seven years in prison for the shooting death of a military parachutist in 2003.<br />In April the Court of Cassation, the country's highest appellate court, sentenced a policemen to 10 years in prison for the 2000 killing of a 16‑year‑old boy.<br />In March a court sentenced the leader of the New Red Brigades (Communist Combatant Party) to life in prison for the March 2003 murder of a police officer. In July and in 2005, in cases involving some of the same suspects, the Rome appeals court sentenced three Red Brigade members to life in prison and nine others to lesser sentences for the 1999 killing of Massimo D'Antona, an academic advisor to the labor ministry. In December the Bologna court sentenced four Red Brigade members to life in prison and one to 21 years for the 2002 murder of another labor ministry academic advisor, Marco Biagi. In March and June, the Rome court sentenced five Red Brigade members to life and one to 16 years' imprisonment for the 2002 killing of Marco Biagi.<br />b. Disappearance<br />There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances.<br />c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment<br />The law prohibits such practices; however, there were reports that police occasionally used excessive force against persons detained in connection with common criminal offenses or in the course of identity checks. While this behavior affected both citizens and foreigners, Roma and immigrants were at particular risk (see section 5).<br />In 2004 authorities charged a prison guard in Lombardy with raping an Albanian immigrant in custody. The case remained under investigation at year's end.<br />The investigation of an off‑duty police officer who shot and injured a 16‑year‑old boy in 2004 was still ongoing at year's end.<br />In 2003 a Nigerian immigrant accused two policemen in Rome of abusing him while he was in their custody; the alleged abuses included burns to his abdomen. The incident occurred after the immigrant had attempted to escape. The case was under investigation at the end of the year.<br />In March the court gave a seven‑month sentence to a police officer convicted of using excessive force and causing personal injury to a number of individuals when police were trying to clear approximately 100 activists from a Milan emergency room waiting area in March 2003. During the year one of two other officers charged in the incident was acquitted, and a court sentenced two of four activists investigated for violence against police on the same occasion to 20 months in prison.<br />At year's end the trial continued of 27 police officers, including senior officers, charged with perjury, conspiracy, or assault during a 2001 police raid on a building used by protesters at the G‑8 summit in Genoa in 2001. A separate trial continued of 45 police officers indicted for "inhuman or degrading treatment," including assault, during the subsequent detention of those protestors.<br />Prison and Detention Center Conditions<br />Prison conditions generally met international standards, although some prisons remained overcrowded and antiquated. In July parliament approved a reduction in sentences for minor crimes that significantly reduced the number of prisoners (see section 1.d.). In November, after many prisoners were released, there were 39,200 inmates (down from 61,300 in June) in a prison system designed to hold 42,500; however, the uneven distribution of those released left a few institutions still overcrowded. Older facilities lacked outdoor or exercise space; some prisons lacked adequate medical care. Approximately 62 percent of the inmates were serving sentences; the other 38 percent consisted mainly of detainees awaiting trial or the outcome of an appeal.<br />During the year, according to an independent research center, 58 prisoners died while in custody, 35 of them by suicide.<br />The 20 temporary detention centers for illegal immigrants continued to be overcrowded. The newly elected government provided improved access to detention centers for representatives of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs.)<br />The law does not require that pretrial detainees be held separately from convicted prisoners, and they are held together in some smaller prisons.<br />The government permitted visits by independent human rights organizations, parliamentarians, and the media. Amnesty International (AI), the UN Human Rights Commission, the Committee Against Torture of the Council of Europe (CPT), and the UN Special Rapporteur on Torture regularly assessed the country's judicial and prison systems. Several municipalities appointed independent ombudsmen to promote the rights of detainees and facilitate access to health care and other services.<br />In April the government authorized publication of a report of the CPT, whose representatives visited prisons, detention centers, and police stations in 2004. The report noted that some inmates suffered such abuses as incarceration in cramped conditions, lack of access to lawyers, poor medical treatment, and xenophobic and racist insults. In response to the report, the government indicated that it had built four new prisons, was upgrading another eight, and had hired additional prison staff, including psychologists and cultural mediators.<br />d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention<br />The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the government generally observed these prohibitions.<br />Role of the Police and Security Apparatus<br />Four separate police forces, which report to different ministerial or local authorities, effectively enforced law and order. The national police and the financial police are under the jurisdiction of the interior and finance ministries, respectively. The Ministry of Defense controls the carabinieri, a military security force; however, the Ministry of Interior assumes control of carabinieri and financial police units when they perform law enforcement functions. Under exceptional circumstances the government may call on the army to provide security in the form of police duty in certain local areas, thereby freeing the carabinieri and local police to focus on other duties.<br />Allegations of police corruption by journalists and prosecutors increased. In January eight carabinieri officers in Milan were arrested on charges of graft and evidence tampering. The officers reportedly used false evidence to extort money from a number of previous offenders, three of whom were wrongfully convicted and returned to prison until an investigation raised questions about the evidence. The accused were released. The officers' trial had not begun by year's end.<br />In April 2005 authorities charged 12 police officers with corruption, abuse of authority, and perjury, because of their contacts with criminal organizations. The charges were based on wiretaps. The case remained under investigation at year's end.<br />Both the government and the judiciary investigated police abuses and prosecuted police who mistreated persons in custody. The trial of 29 police officers charged in 2003 with unlawful imprisonment and assault in Genoa in 2001 continued (see section 1.c.).<br />Arrest and Detention<br />To make arrests, police are required to have warrants issued by duly authorized officials, unless there is a specific and immediate danger to which they must respond. The examining magistrate must decide within 24 hours of a suspect's detention whether there is enough evidence to proceed with an arrest. The investigating judge then has 48 hours in which to confirm the arrest and recommend whether the case goes to trial. Authorities generally respected the right to a prompt judicial determination in practice. Under the law detainees are entitled to prompt and regular access to lawyers of their choosing and to family members. The state provides a lawyer to indigents. In exceptional circumstances‑‑usually in cases of organized crime figures‑‑where there is danger that attorneys may attempt to tamper with evidence, the investigating judge may take up to five days to interrogate the accused before the accused is allowed to contact an attorney. There is no provision for bail; however, judges may grant provisional liberty to suspects awaiting trial. As a safeguard against unjustified detention, a detainee may request that a panel of judges (liberty tribunals) review his case on a regular basis and rule on whether continued detention is warranted.<br />In 2005 the president signed into law a new antiterrorism decree that: doubles to 24 hours the amount of time police can hold suspects without charge; makes arrests for crimes involving terrorism obligatory; allows police to take DNA samples from suspects for identification purposes; makes it easier for intelligence services to conduct wiretaps; requires identification to purchase telephone cards and a license to operate an Internet cafe; increases penalties for concealing one's identity in public places; allows the government to deport suspects under investigation without court approval (suspects may appeal only after the deportation occurs); and expands the legal grounds for deportation to include concern that an individual's presence might facilitate terrorist activities or organizations. In November the European Human Rights Committee blocked deportation orders against three individuals the authorities considered terrorists, citing the need to investigate whether they would be subject to persecution if they were returned to their home country, Tunisia.<br />Since adoption of the 2005 law, authorities have employed it to deport 32 immigrants suspected of links to terrorist networks.<br />Preventive detention may be imposed as a last resort if there is clear and convincing evidence of a serious offense. Serious offenses are defined as those that carry maximum prison sentences of four years or more, such as some crimes involving the Mafia or crimes related to terrorism, drugs, arms, and subversion. Authorities may also use preventive detention if there is a risk that an offense might be repeated or that evidence might be falsified. Except in extraordinary situations, preventive detention is prohibited for pregnant women, single parents of children under age three, persons over age 70, and those who are seriously ill.<br />Despite restrictions on pretrial detention, it remained a serious problem. During the first half of the year, 20 percent of all prisoners were in pretrial detention awaiting the beginning of their trials and 16 percent were awaiting a final sentence. The maximum term of pretrial incarceration is two years for a crime with a maximum penalty of six years in prison, four years for a crime with a maximum penalty of 20 years, and six years for a crime with a maximum penalty of more than 20 years.<br />According to some judicial experts, a few prosecutors used pretrial detention as pressure to obtain confessions.<br />In July parliament approved a law that granted a three‑year reduction in prison sentences for minor crimes committed before May 2; it does not apply to sentences committed for the crimes of terrorism, trafficking in persons, mafia‑related crime, pornography, rape, or drug trafficking. The effect of the law was to release 17,400 prisoners, greatly easing overcrowding of prisons.<br />e. Denial of Fair Public Trial<br />The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respected this provision in practice; however, most court cases involved long trial delays. Pressure on the judicial system, primarily through the intimidation of judges by organized crime groups, further complicated the judicial process. In February and March, a judge who was a member of a court of appeals that sentenced 39 mafia members to prison for life was the target of a series of episodes of intimidation (notes, graffiti, bullets were left in front of his apartment) in Catanzaro.<br />There are three levels of courts. Either a single judge or a court, which may consist of a panel of judges or include a jury, hears cases at the level of first instance. At the second level, civil and criminal appeals are heard by separate courts with juries. Both sides may appeal decisions of the court of appeals to the highest court, the Court of Cassation in Rome, but only for reasons related to law, not to the merits of the case. A separate Constitutional Court hears cases involving possible conflict between laws and the constitution or involving conflicts over the duties or powers of different units of government.<br />Legislation enacted in 2005 reformed the judicial system by altering the career track of professional magistrates (who previously functioned as both prosecutors and trial/appellate judges) to require them to become either prosecutors or judges. It also made the promotion of judges conditional upon passage of an examination and allows district prosecutors to determine the priority of cases. The legislation gives the Court of Cassation authority to discipline magistrates who participate in political activities, leak information, or otherwise violate judicial rules of procedure.<br />Trial Procedures<br />The constitution provides for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. Trials are public. Defendants have access to an attorney in a timely manner to prepare a defense. Defendants may confront and question witnesses against them, and they may present witnesses and evidence on their behalf. Prosecutors must make evidence available to defendants and their attorneys upon request. The law grants defendants the presumption of innocence. Defendants may appeal verdicts to the highest appellate court.<br />Domestic and European institutions continued to criticize the slow pace of justice in the country. In 2005 over 800 petitions were pending in the European Court of Human Rights seeking compensation from the government for excessively long proceedings. Observers cited several reasons for delays: the absence of effective limits on the length of pretrial investigations; the large number of minor offenses covered by the penal code; unclear and contradictory legal provisions; and insufficient resources, including an inadequate number of judges.<br />In January 2005 the chief prosecutor of the Court of Cassation estimated that 81 percent of reported crimes went unpunished. A year later he reported that on average it took 401 days to complete a criminal trial, 860 days to complete an appeal, an additional 918 days if a case was referred to the Court of Cassation.<br />The courts had significant leeway to determine when the statute of limitations should apply, and defendants often took advantage of the slow pace of justice to delay trials through extensive pleas and appeals (see section 3). In February parliament enacted a law that limits the power of prosecutors to appeal acquittals by eliminating the intermediary appellate level and requiring that appeals go directly to the Court of Cassation. For the first time the new law also allows appeals based on evidence presented during the trial; previously, the grounds for appeal were limited to interpretation or application of the law itself.<br />Political Prisoners and Detainees<br />There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees.<br />Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies<br />The constitution provides for an independent and impartial judiciary in civil matters. Administrative remedies are determined by law and arbitration is allowed and regulated by contracts. In most cases citizens turned to arbitration because of trial delays. In 2004 the average time required to complete a civil trial was 798 days; 636 days were required to complete an appeal, and another 317 days to appeal to the Court of Cassation.<br />f. Arbitrary Interference With Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence<br />The law prohibits such actions, and the government generally respected these prohibitions in practice. Searches and electronic monitoring were generally permissible under judicial warrant and in carefully defined circumstances; however, the new antiterrorism decree made it easier for intelligence agencies to obtain permission to conduct wiretaps. The new antiterrorism decree also required the purchasers of telephone cards to provide identification.<br />The media published leaked transcripts of both legal and illegal wiretaps during the year. Prosecutors and magistrates called for new legislation making it a crime to publish transcripts of illegal wiretaps. Published wiretaps included information relating to the arrest of Prince Victor Emanuele on charges of corruption and running a brothel, charges of game‑fixing against coaches and referees of major soccer teams, and charges of inappropriate interference in the sale of banks that led to the resignation of the governor of the Bank of Italy. There were also accounts of alleged industrial espionage and illegal wiretaps relating to the sale of a national telecommunications company (see section 1.f.).<br />Section 2 Respect for Civil Liberties, Including:<br />a. Freedom of Speech and Press<br />The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights in practice and did not restrict academic freedom. An independent press and judiciary and a functioning democratic political system combined to ensure freedom of speech and the press.<br />Individuals could criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal, and the authorities did not impede such criticism. In January parliament enacted a law that replaces imprisonment with fines as punishment for desecrating the flag or insulting the president.<br />The independent media were active and expressed a wide variety of views.<br />There were approximately 80 newspapers in circulation, eight of them national. Former prime minister Berlusconi (leader of the opposition coalition, controlled two of the national newspapers. Critics charged that through his ownership share of the company Mediaset, Berlusconi also directly or indirectly controlled three of the country's seven national television broadcast channels. The three state‑owned channels (Radiotelevisione Italiana or RAI) and other networks broadcast a wide range of opinion that reflected the full spectrum of political views in the country. Disputes over partisanship on the airwaves continued to prompt frequent political debate, and NGOs contended that media ownership was concentrated in too few hands.<br />On April 29, according to the Committee to Protect Journalists, a judge ordered journalist Mario Spezi released after 22 days in jail. Authorities detained Spezi in Perugia. His detention occurred days before the appearance of a book he coauthored that criticized the Perugia public prosecutor's investigation of a series of long‑unresolved killings. News reports indicated that the journalist was under investigation for attempting to sidetrack an investigation and defaming Perugia prosecutors in the media.<br />The NGO Reporters Without Borders and the journalists' union criticized several judicial actions against journalists. In August prosecutors ordered police to search the premises of two national newspapers to ascertain the source of articles related to the investigation of an alleged rendition by foreign officials of an imam who was being investigated for terrorist activities by the Milan prosecutor. The case remained under investigation at year's end.<br />In September two journalists claimed they were the subject of illegal wiretaps and that the country's intelligence services followed them because of their reports on alleged illicit activities by the security services.<br />In May 2005, on the orders of a prosecutor, financial police searched the office of a national newspaper and interrogated some journalists to ascertain the source of an article on arms trafficking. Neither the newspaper nor the prosecutor took further action on the case. Observers noted that there were contradictory statutes that maintained the sanctity of journalistic sources on the one hand and authorized magistrates to carry out investigations into journalistic sources on the other.<br />Unlike in previous years, politicians filed no defamation suits against journalists; however, action was pending or taken on several suits filed by politicians in earlier years. In July 2005 former prime minister Berlusconi filed a libel suit against a British journalist over a book in which the journalist alleged that Berlusconi was involved in criminal activity and political corruption; Berlusconi was seeking $1.27 million (one million euros) in compensation; no action was taken in the case by year's end. In March a judge dismissed charges filed by the former prime minister against another journalist who published a book about the alleged involvement of Berlusconi's companies in mafia‑related crime. In April 2005 a trial of three journalists from the newspaper, Coriere della Sera, began; they were accused of defaming Umberto Bossi, the leader of the Northern League party in 2003; the trial was ongoing at year's end.<br />In 2005 the president of a Muslim association filed a defamation suit against the writer Oriana Fallaci for the publication of a book critical of Islam. The prosecutor first ordered the dismissal of the case, but a judge subsequently sent the case to trial in Bergamo. The book remains on sale, and Ms. Fallaci died in September, effectively ending the suit.<br />Internet Freedom<br />There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e‑mail or Internet chatrooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by electronic mail; however, the government could block foreign‑based Internet sites if they contravened national laws. The new antiterrorism decree requires that the operator of an Internet café obtain a license.<br />Academic Freedom and Cultural Events<br />There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events.<br />b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association<br />The constitution provides for freedom of assembly and association, and the government generally respected these rights in practice.<br />c. Freedom of Religion<br />The constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice.<br />There is no state religion; however, an agreement between the Roman Catholic Church and the government provides the Catholic Church certain privileges. For example, it may select Catholic religion teachers, whose earnings are paid by the government. The law authorizes the government to enter into relations with organizations representing non‑Catholic religions pursuant to an accord (intesa) that allows the government to provide support (including financial) to the organization; these accords are voluntary and initiated by the religious groups themselves. Several minority religious groups benefited from such accords. The government has also negotiated accords with several others, including the Buddhist Union and Jehovah's Witnesses organization; however, the parliament recessed in April without enacting the legislation necessary to put them into effect. Divisions between the country's Muslim organizations, as well as large number of Muslim immigrant groups, hindered that community's efforts to seek an intesa.<br />There were occasional reports that government officials or the public objected to women wearing a burqah (a garment that completely covers the face and body). The 2005 antiterrorism decree doubled existing penalties for persons convicted of wearing such attire as a burqah (or a crash helmet) in order to hide their identity. Penalties were increased to two years in jail and fines of approximately $1,310 (1,000 euros) to $2,620 (2,000 euros) (see section 1.d.).<br />In May an administrative tribunal ruled that the 2005 deportation of the imam of Turin on the grounds that he was preaching hate and violence was groundless. The courts did not review the use of similar grounds in 2005 to expel the vice president of the Como Muslim Cultural Center. There were no reports of such expulsions during the year.<br />The continuing presence of such Christian symbols as crucifixes in many government offices, courtrooms, and other public buildings drew criticism and continued to be the subject of lawsuits. In February an appeals court rejected a mother's efforts to remove crucifixes in her children's classroom in Albano Terme; the judge noted that the crucifix is not just a religious symbol but can express secular values as well. A poll conducted during the year indicated that 80 percent of the population supported having crucifixes in schools and public buildings.<br />Societal Abuses and Discrimination<br />The country's approximately 30,000 Jews maintain synagogues in 21 cities. There were no violent anti‑Semitic attacks during the year, but societal anti‑Semitic prejudices persisted, and small extremist fringe groups were responsible for anti‑Semitic acts.<br />Swastika graffiti appeared in some cities and during some soccer matches. In January fans at a soccer match displayed anti‑Semitic banners and Nazi symbols. On July 10, neo‑Nazis celebrating the country's World Cup victory vandalized walls, doors, and vehicles in the Jewish quarter of Rome with swastikas and other anti‑Semitic graffiti. The prime minister and other politicians strongly condemned the incident as an "ignoble gesture of hate and intolerance."<br />On May 16, unknown persons vandalized 40 graves in a large Jewish cemetery in Milan. Authorities started an investigation, but there were no reports of progress at year's end.During the July‑August conflict involving Israel and the terrorist organization Hizballah in Lebanon, Jewish citizens were sometimes held collectively responsible for actions of the state of Israel. For example, the Anti‑Defamation League (ADL) reported that on July 28, in Livorno, graffiti translating roughly to "Israel is an evil state" was written on the walls of Jewish‑owned businesses. The ADL also reported that on August 1, 20 shops in Rome were vandalized with swastikas and other damage. Fliers found at the shops were signed by the Armed Revolutionary Fascists, a neo‑fascist group, and denounced "the Zionist economy" and included pro‑Hezbollah statements.Also in August the National Secretary of the Union of Islamic Communities in Italy (UCOII) placed an advertisement in local newspapers comparing the alleged massacres committed by the Israeli Army in Lebanon to the massacres committed by the Nazis. Politicians, government officials, and the minister of the interior's Muslim advisory board, the Islamic Consulta, (except for the UCOII member) condemned the statement.The government hosted meetings to increase educational awareness of the Holocaust and to combat anti‑Semitism.For a more detailed discussion, see the <em>2006 Report on International Religious Freedom</em>.<br />d. Freedom of Movement Within the Country, Foreign Travel, Emigration, and Repatriation<br />The constitution provides for these rights, and the government generally respected them in practice.<br />The law prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it.<br />Protection of Refugees<br />The law provides for the granting of asylum or refugee status in accordance with the 1951 UN Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 protocol, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. In practice the government provided protection against refoulement, the return of persons to a country where they feared persecution. In 2005 the government granted refugee status or asylum to 907 persons.<br />The government also provided temporary protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees under the 1951 convention and the 1967 protocol and provided it to 4,375 persons during the year.<br />The government cooperated with the UNHCR and other humanitarian organizations in assisting refugees, and it provided temporary protection to refugees fleeing hostilities or natural disasters. Such refugees were granted temporary residence permits, which had to be renewed periodically but did not ensure future permanent residence.<br />In the first half of the year, authorities identified 62,000 individuals in the country illegally and deported 24,125. Those who were apprehended, usually attempting entry by sea, were sent to temporary detention centers for processing, and a magistrate determined whether an illegal immigrant would be deported (if their identity could be ascertained), issued an order to depart (if their identity could not be ascertained), or would be accepted for asylum processing. In February AI released a report on the rights of migrants and asylum‑seeking minors which highlighted 890 allegations regarding the presence of unaccompanied children who were restricted in temporary detention centers in unhygienic and unsuitable conditions. AI stated that it possessed detailed information about 28 of these cases. The government had not responded to these allegations by year's end.<br />The 20 temporary detention centers for illegal immigrants continued to be overcrowded (see section 1.c.).<br />Section 3 Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government<br />The constitution provides citizens with the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens exercised this right in practice through periodic, free, and fair elections held on the basis of universal suffrage.<br />Elections and Political Participation<br />Executive authority is vested in the Council of Ministers, headed by the president of the council (the prime minister). The head of state (president of the republic) nominates the prime minister after consulting with the leaders of all political forces in parliament. National parliamentary elections (which determine who will be president and prime minister) were held in April and were considered free and fair. Authorities invited the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) to observe the process for the first time and that organization reported that overall the elections were in keeping with the country's tradition of democratic elections. A center‑left coalition led by Prime Minister Romano Prodi was elected, replacing a center‑right coalition led by former prime minister Silvio Berlusconi. Under a law enacted in 2001, citizens living abroad were able to vote in national elections for the first time.<br />Parliament also elected a new president, Giorgio Napolitano.<br />There were numerous political parties, which functioned without government restrictions.<br />The elections resulted in a significant increase in the number of women who won elective office. There were 40 women in the 315‑seat Senate (up from 25) and 108 women in the 630‑seat Chamber of Deputies (up from 63). The number of women in the cabinet increased from two to six of 25 cabinet positions.<br />The only legally defined minorities are linguistic‑‑the French‑speaking Valdostani and the German‑speaking Altoatesini/Suditirolesi. In the new parliament there were four members of linguistic minorities in the 315‑seat Senate and five in the 630‑seat Chamber of Deputies. In a largely monolithic society, immigrants represented approximately 4 percent of the population, and fewer than half of these qualified as ethnic/racial minorities. Two members of immigrant groups (of Moroccan and Palestinian origin) were elected to the Chamber of Deputies.<br />Government Corruption and Transparency<br />In December the High Commissioner of the independent Task Force on Corruption resigned, citing a lack of political support and budgetary pressure to eliminate the office. Established in 2004, the task force conducted over 50 investigations but had little real power to address corruption. There continued to be isolated reports of government corruption during the year, and the general public believed that politicians were corrupt. According to press reporting, between November 2003 and November 2005 a special court dealing with financial issues issued 201 summonses in response to complaints from private citizens and public officials regarding allegations of bribery or graft in public administration. It also issued 265 rulings on various cases. There was no information on the number of cases referred to a prosecutor for further action. In 2005 the NGO Transparency International rated perceptions of corruption in the country at 5.0 on a scale of one to 10 with 10 indicating the least corruption. The rating reflected the perceptions of business people and country analysts concerning the prevalence of overall corruption in the country. Its rating in 2003 was 4.8.<br />In July 2005 prosecutors charged 148 persons with involvement in a 1999 scheme to avoid military service by bribing officials. The trial had not concluded by year's end.<br />In November the Court of Cassation annulled the 2005 conviction of Ceasare Previti, previously former prime minister Berlusconi's lawyer and a former minister of defense. He had been convicted of corruption and sentenced to six years' imprisonment by an appeals court in a case that involved the possible corruption of a judge.<br />The law gives citizens the right to access government documents and to be informed of administrative processes. With some exceptions for security issues, the government and local authorities respected this right in practice for citizens, noncitizens, and the foreign press.<br />Section 4 Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights<br />A wide variety of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were cooperative and responsive to their views.<br />Section 5 Discrimination, Societal Abuse, and Trafficking in Persons<br />The law prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, gender (except with regard to hazardous work), ethnic background, and political opinion and provides some protection against discrimination based on disability, language, or social status. The government generally enforced these prohibitions. However, some societal discrimination against women, persons with disabilities, immigrants, and Roma persisted.<br />Women<br />Violence against women, including spousal abuse, remained a problem. The NGO Telefono Rosa, which provided a hot line through which abused women could obtain legal, medical, and other assistance, reported that 13 percent of the calls it received involved sexual violence, 37 percent involved physical violence in the home, and more than 31 percent involved psychological violence. Telefono Rosa reported receiving an average of 600 calls a month.<br />Rape, including spousal rape, is illegal, and the government enforced the law effectively. In 2004, 4,578 cases of rape were reported, 3,412 persons were charged, and 1,530 were convicted.<br />The law criminalizes physical abuse of women, including by family members, allows for the prosecution of perpetrators of violence against women and helps women who have been victims of attack avoid publicity. Law enforcement and judicial authorities were not reluctant to prosecute perpetrators of violence against women, but victims frequently declined to press charges due to fear, shame, or ignorance of the law. According to a national survey, only 9 percent of rape victims reported the crime to police. In March the Ministry of Equal Opportunity established an additional hot line for victims of violence seeking immediate assistance and temporary shelter.<br />Individual acts of prostitution in private residences are legal. It is legal for adults to solicit or pay for acts of prostitution. It is illegal to operate a brothel, traffic in human beings, or engage in sex with a minor.<br />In August, in Brescia, the father of a 20‑year‑old Pakistani immigrant woman allegedly killed her because she refused an arranged marriage with her cousin and had adopted a western lifestyle. His trial was pending at year's end.<br />In September an immigrant Indian woman, aged 31, committed suicide, allegedly to avoid an arranged marriage.<br />Trafficking of women for sexual exploitation remained a problem (see section 5, Trafficking).<br />The law permits domestic courts to try citizens and permanent residents who engage in sex tourism, including outside the country, even if the offense is not a crime in the country in which it occurred. The country also has what is considered a model code of conduct for tourist agencies to help combat sex tourism. In January four persons accused of organizing tours to Brazil that included the sexual services of girls ages 12 to 17 were put on trial; the trials were ongoing at year's end. In September, in the first case applying the extra‑territorial aspect of the law against sexual tourism, prosecutors charged an individual for his activities in Thailand in 2003‑2005; the trial was ongoing at year's end.In 2003 authorities charged two individuals with sex tourism; their trials had not concluded by year's end.<br />Sexual harassment is illegal, and the government effectively enforced the law. In 2005, in an effort to combat sexual harassment in the workplace, the government issued a decree that makes emotional abuse based on gender discrimination a crime.<br />The law provides women the same rights as men, including rights under family law, property law, and in the judicial system.<br />According to the well‑respected research center Censis, the overall gap between salaries for men and women averaged 26 percent. Women were underrepresented in many fields, including management, entrepreneurial business, and the professions. According to the Superior Council of the Judiciary, 40 percent of magistrates were women, but only 5 percent of chief justices were women.<br />A number of government offices worked to ensure women's rights. A woman heads the Ministry for Equal Opportunity, and there is an equal opportunity commission in the Office of the Prime Minister. The labor ministry has a similar commission that focuses on women's rights and discrimination in the workplace. Many NGOs, most of them affiliated with labor unions or political parties, actively and effectively promoted women's rights.<br />Children<br />The government demonstrated a commitment to children's rights and welfare. Schooling is free and compulsory for children from age seven to 18; those unable or unwilling to follow the academic curriculum may shift to vocational training at age 15. In 2005 the Ministry of Education reported that 72.9 percent of children aged 15 to 18 attended secondary school. There was no difference in the treatment and attendance of girls and boys at the primary, secondary, and post‑secondary levels. Completion of secondary school was the highest level achieved by most children.<br />The state provides free medical care for all citizens.<br />Child abuse was a problem; in 2005 the NGO Telefono Azzurro received approximately 380,000 calls related to child abuse. Approximately 5 percent involved sexual abuse, 11 percent physical violence, and 8 percent psychological exploitation. In 60 percent of the cases, the victims were female; 46 percent were 10 years old or younger. In the first six months of 2005, judicial authorities registered 748 allegations of sexual abuse of minors and accused 276 persons of abuse. Between 2001 and 2003, the government funded 144 projects carried out by NGOs to improve parent‑child relations and combat child abuse.<br />NGOs estimated that eight to 10 percent of prostitutes were minors. An independent research center estimated that there were between 1,800 and 3,000 minors who worked as street prostitutes; of these, 1,500 to 2,300 were trafficked into the country and forced into prostitution (see section 5, Trafficking).<br />Illegal immigrant child laborers from northern Africa, the Philippines, Albania, and China continued to enter the country. In December the prosecutor of Agrigento alleged that criminal organizations were responsible for trafficking thousands of minors from outside the European Union through Sicily. He reported that the most organized gangs were Romanian, Albanian, Egyptian and Moroccan.<br />An interministerial committee chaired by the minister of equal opportunity coordinates the fight against pedophilia. A special unit of the police monitored 33,000 Web sites between January and November, investigated 337 persons for crimes involving child pornography online, and arrested 16 of them.<br />There were reports of child labor (see section 6.d.)<br />Trafficking in Persons<br />The law prohibits trafficking in persons; however, persons were trafficked to, from, and within the country. According to government and NGO sources, approximately 2,500 new victims were trafficked to and within the country in 2005, the latest year for which data was available. Eight to 10 percent were believed to be underage.<br />The country was a destination and transit point for trafficked persons. Immigrants, mostly from Nigeria, North Africa, and Eastern Europe, played a major role in trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation, both as traffickers and victims, although citizens were also involved. Press reports estimated that over 85 percent of prostitutes in the country were immigrants, primarily from Nigeria and Eastern Europe.<br />Sexually exploited victims of trafficking faced health risks resulting from unsafe and unprotected sex. Trafficking victims in the Tuscany region who worked in sweatshops were possibly exposed to dangerous chemicals in the leather industry.<br />Organized criminal groups were responsible for most trafficking; prostitution rings routinely moved trafficked persons from city to city to avoid arrest.<br />Italian victims of trafficking were usually lured to other countries in Western Europe with promises of a job, or sold by relatives, friends, or acquaintances. Traffickers then forced their victims to work as prostitutes, laborers in restaurants or sweatshops, or beggars in the street. The traffickers enforced compliance by taking the victims' documents, beating and raping them, or threatening to harm their families. There were no reports that traffickers killed trafficked women during the year.<br />The law provides sentences of eight to 20 years in prison for trafficking in persons and for enslavement. Sentences for persons convicted of trafficking in minors for sexual exploitation increase by one‑third to one‑half. The law mandates special prison conditions for traffickers designed to limit their ability to continue their operations from jail.<br />The number of persons investigated for trafficking increased from 1,861 in 2004 to 2,054 in 2005, but arrests decreased from 341 to 304; the number of prosecutions decreased from 120 to 102 and convictions from 77 to 50. The government cooperated with foreign governments, including those of Nigeria, Ukraine, Bulgaria, and Moldova, to investigate and prosecute trafficking cases. For example, in May authorities arrested and charged 41 Bulgarian nationals with trafficking in minors; at year's end they continued to investigate another 75 persons for bringing children of Romani and poor families into the country to commit robberies in Trieste.<br />In June police in Rome arrested three Romanian nationals and charged them with smuggling persons with disabilities and forcing them to work as beggars; one victim was assisted and repatriated. The case was pending at year's end.<br />In July police arrested six Romanians in Rome and Milan on charges of trafficking at least 100 children whom they allegedly forced to beg on the streets and steal from private residences. The case was pending at year's end.<br />In July, in Puglia, Italian and Polish police arrested 25 individuals, including Poles, Ukrainians, Algerians, and an Italian, for trafficking up to 1,000 Poles over several years for forced agricultural labor. The traffickers hired the workers out to local farmers. Reportedly, the victims responded to an advertisement for migrant workers, paid a travel fee, received $4 per hour and were kept in penury by the traffickers, who charged them for food, water, and squalid sleeping quarters. Police freed 113 workers and were investigating reports of at least two suspicious suicide deaths in the work camps as well as reports of beatings and rape. The interior ministry was investigating the abuses at year's end.<br />In April police unveiled a criminal ring and arrested twelve Italians and six Romanians charged with forced prostitution and exploitation since 2004 of hundreds of Romani minors who were persuaded to have sexual intercourse with adults in exchange for small gifts. Pedophiles allegedly lured children at intersections where they used to beg or sell merchandise<br />There were no reported developments in the case involving 25 Italians and Bulgarians arrested in 2005 and charged with trafficking in persons, criminal conspiracy, kidnapping, and sexual assault.<br />The following reported 2004 trafficking investigations remained ongoing at year's end: a Romanian father who was selling his 10‑year‑old child for sex in the outskirts of Milan; two Albanians, one Egyptian, one Pakistani, and one Italian involved in trafficking women from Eastern Europe for prostitution; six Bulgarian men who accompanied Bulgarian women into the country who gave birth and then sold the babies to Italian families for $13,100 (10,000 euros) each; 12 persons, including two police officers, who were arrested in Sassari and charged with trafficking for prostitution and falsification of documents; and four persons who were accused of organizing tours to Brazil that included the sexual services of girls ages 12 to 17.<br />Government officials generally did not participate in, facilitate, or condone trafficking.<br />The law provides temporary residence or work permits to persons who seek to escape their exploiters. Authorities and NGOs encouraged victims to file complaints, and there were no legal impediments for them to do so. Unlike most other illegal immigrants, who face deportation if caught, persons who qualify as official trafficking victims under law receive numerous benefits, including legal residence, whether or not they filed a complaint. To date, only prostitutes have received assistance under the law. However, NGOs alleged that the government did not always allow enough time between apprehension and deportation of illegal immigrants to screen them for trafficking victims.<br />The government provided legal and medical assistance once authorities identified a person as having been trafficked. There were shelters and programs for job training. There also were assistance and incentive programs for those willing to return to their home country; in 2005, 78 victims who chose to go home were repatriated. The domestic NGO Social Service International assisted in repatriating unaccompanied immigrant minors.<br />The law empowers magistrates to seize convicted traffickers' assets to finance legal assistance, vocational training, and other social integration assistance for trafficking victims.<br />The government worked with other governments and NGOs to orchestrate awareness campaigns. The law directs the foreign ministry, together with the equal opportunity ministry, to conclude additional antitrafficking agreements with trafficking source countries.<br />Persons with Disabilities<br />The law prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, and the provision of other state services; and the government effectively enforced these provisions; however, there was some societal discrimination. Although the law mandates access to government buildings for persons with disabilities, mechanical barriers, particularly in public transport, left such persons at a disadvantage. The Ministry of Labor and Welfare was responsible for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities.<br />In January parliament enacted legislation to broaden the definition of discrimination against persons with disabilities by public and private entities and, for the first time, allowed NGOs to file complaints on behalf of persons with disabilities.<br />In August 2005 carabinieri closed a private health facility for the mentally ill in Reggio Calabria for structural, health, and safety violations.<br />In June 2005 the national airline Alitalia refused to board a disabled person, claiming it would cause delays for other passengers. There were no reports of follow‑up by authorities.<br />Of the 587,000 workers with disabilities registered at public employment centers during the year, only 5.2 percent found work, even though 101,000 positions that are reserved by law for persons with disabilities remained vacant.<br />National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities<br />Police continued to mistreat Roma. The NGO Opera Nomadi reported cases of discrimination, especially with regard to housing and evictions, deportations, and efforts by the government to remove children for their protection from Romani parents. Government officials at the national and local levels, including those from the Ministries of Interior and Equal Opportunity, met periodically with Roma and their representatives. Opera Nomandi held conferences, applied for tax exempt status, and lobbied the government throughout the year.<br />In April the European Committee of Social Rights ruled that the country systematically violates the right to adequate housing for Roma by not providing sufficient camping sites, not providing permanent housing, and evicting Roma from housing.<br />Public opinion surveys indicated that negative societal attitudes toward immigrants continued to increase, especially among young persons and in the North. Immigrants continued to assert that that they were discriminated against in employment.<br />There were no accurate statistics on the number of Roma in the country. NGOs estimated that a population of 120,000, up to 80 percent of whom could be citizens, was concentrated on the fringes of urban areas in the central and southern parts of the country, living in camps characterized by poor housing, unhygienic sanitary conditions, limited employment prospects, inadequate educational facilities, and the absence of a consistent police presence. Faced with limited income and job opportunities, and suffering from harassment, some Roma begged or engaged in petty crime, which led to repressive measures by police and some judicial authorities.<br />The government's Office to Combat Racial and Ethnic Discrimination in the Ministry of Equal Opportunity provided assistance to victims of discrimination. In 2005 it received 3,400 calls on its national hot line, of which it considered 282 to be genuine cases of discrimination against racial or ethnic minorities. The majority of complaints related to wage and overtime issues and discrimination in public. The office provided legal assistance and help in mediating disputes.<br />Other Societal Abuses and Discrimination<br />In June 2005 the Administrative Court of Catania condemned the Ministry of Transport for having requested the revocation of a driver's license of a homosexual based on his sexual orientation. A civil trial seeking restitution was underway at year's end.<br />Section 6 Worker Rights<br />a. The Right of Association<br />The law provides for the right to establish, join, and carry out union activities in the workplace without previous authorization or excessive requirements, and workers exercised these rights in practice. Unions claimed to represent between 35 and 40 percent of the workforce.<br />b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively<br />The law allows unions to conduct their activities without interference, and the government protected this right in practice. The law provides for the right of workers to organize and bargain collectively, and workers exercised this right. Approximately 35 percent of the workforce works under a collective bargaining agreement, but nonunion members working alongside union employees also benefited from the same agreements. The law provides for the right to strike, and workers exercised this right by conducting legal strikes. The law restricts strikes affecting essential public services (such as transport, sanitation, and health), requiring longer advance notification and precluding multiple strikes within days of each other.<br />There are no export processing zones.<br />c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor<br />The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, there were reports that such practices occurred (see section 5, Trafficking).d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for EmploymentThe government implemented laws and policies designed to protect children from exploitation in the workplace; however, there were reports of child labor. The law prohibits employment of children under age 15 (with some limited exceptions), and there are specific restrictions on employment in hazardous or unhealthy occupations for boys under age 18 and girls under age 21.Enforcement of these laws was generally effective in the above‑ground economy; however, the enforcement of minimum age or other child protection laws was difficult in the extensive informal economy. In 2005 an independent research center estimated that approximately 460,000 children under age 15 worked at least occasionally, while 70,000 worked for at least four hours per day. Many of these children were helping in family‑owned farms and businesses, work which is illegal if it interferes with education.)Illegal immigrant child laborers from northern Africa, the Philippines, Albania, and China continued to enter the country (see section 5, Children).<br />Trafficking in children was a problem (see section 5).<br />The government, employers' associations, and unions continued their tripartite cooperation on child labor. The Ministry of Labor, working with police and carabinieri, is responsible for enforcement of child labor laws, but their efforts generally were ineffective. In the first half of the year, the Ministry of Welfare conducted inspections of 2,311 companies, which had a total workforce of 12,830. Of these, the Ministry found 2,276 citizens aged 14‑18 and 259 immigrants, legal and illegal. They fined companies for violations related to lack of periodic medical check‑ups (600), work hours and leave (158), and minimum age (84 cases of children under 15 being employed.<br />e. Acceptable Conditions of Work<br />While the law does not set minimum wages, it provides for them to be set through collective bargaining agreements on a sector‑by‑sector basis. The minimum wage in most industries provided a decent standard of living for a worker and family. Courts effectively enforced the wages set through collective bargaining agreements, but workers in the informal sector often worked for less.<br />The legal workweek is 40 hours. Overtime work may not exceed two hours per day or an average of 12 hours per week. Unless limited by a collective bargaining agreement, the law sets maximum overtime in industrial sector firms at no more than 80 hours per quarter and 250 hours annually. The law required rest periods of one day per week and 11 hours per day. Premium pay is required for overtime. These standards were effectively enforced.<br /></p></div></div></div>Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-25636381878871733092010-06-08T01:11:00.000-07:002010-06-08T01:13:06.227-07:00HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION PROGRAM FOR WOMEN (HREP)When we first began our work as an independent women’s organisation in 1993, one of WWHR-New Ways’ first activities was to conduct a field research on women’s human right in Turkey and violence against women in Ankara, Istanbul, Eastern and Southeastern Anatolia (1994-1996). During the course of this research we came across the fact that women are unaware of the rights granted to them by the law. Another fact was that there was almost no women’s grassroots organising and networking other than those in the big cities of Turkey. Research has confirmed that women’s lives in Turkey are shaped by patriarchal practices, traditions and customs that govern all social zones, rather than the legal rights obtained on paper. Additionally, the patriarchal practices did not take into consideration the needs and the expectations of women, including sexual and reproductive rights. The Human Rights Education Program for Women (HREP) was developed in 1995 by WWHR-New Ways to meet the needs outlined in this context as a non-formal holistic human rights training to equip women with necessary knowledge and skills towards the full enjoyment of their human rights and mobilization around their own needs towards social change and democratization as free and equal individuals.<br />HREP has been implemented in the field on an on-going basis since 1995, and as a result of this uninterrupted implementation has nation-wide outreach reached over 7500 women in 42 provinces located throughout all seven geographical regions of Turkey up to date. The actual outreach, however, is much wider than the number of participants, considering that each participant becomes a resource person within her community on women’s human rights, and also given the concerted focus of the program on facilitating the emergence of grassroots organisations working to advocate women’s human rights at the local level.<br />Since 1998, the program has been implemented in collaboration with a State Agency, in Community Centers throughout Turkey. Community Centers are typically located at socio-economically disadvantaged districts of provinces receiving heavy internal migration. A unique example of successful and sustainable NGO-state collaboration in Turkey, HREP was recently chosen as a “best tactic” in the international “New Tactics in Human Rights” project coordinated by the Center for Victims of Torture (USA) and the Helsinki Citizens Assembly (Turkey).<br />The program consisting of participatory group workshops is implemented in partnership with GDSS in two phases. In the first phase, WWHR-New Ways provides trainer training to the social workers in charge of the Community Centers of SHCEK, who then start to implement the education with women’s groups at the local level. In the second phase, the 16 module program is conducted through weekly 3-4 workshops over the course of 4 months. WWHR-New Ways provides supervision and monitoring to the trainers, supplies training materials, and organizes strategic planning and evaluation meetings with the trainers, as well as networking and capacity building activities with leaders of the grassroots organizing initiatives emerging from the program. The education utilizes an extensive collection of training materials developed by WWHR-New Ways, entailing illustrated brochures for low literacy groups on selected women’s human rights issues, documentaries, action-research articles, a 330-page trainer manual, and an independent program evaluation report among others.<br />HREP entails 16 workshops on numerous topics:<br />Introductry Session and Needs Assessment<br />Human Rights and Women’s Human Rights<br />Constitutional and Civil Rights<br />Violence against Women and Domestic Violence<br />Strategies against Violence<br />Women′s Economic Rights - Section 1<br />Women’s Economic Rights –Section 2<br />Communication Skills –Section 1<br />Communication Skills –Section 2<br />Gender Sensitive Parenting and Rights of the Child<br />Women and Sexuality –Section 1<br />Women and Sexuality –Section 2<br />Reproductive Rights<br />Women and Politics<br />Feminism and the Women’s Movement<br />Women’s Grassroots Organizing<br />The Human Rights Education Program for Women (HREP) remains to be the most widespread, sustainable and comprehensive non-formal human rights education program in Turkey. One of the most distinctive features of HREP is that the program is not implemented in a vacuum, and while participants change and gain awareness of their rights on the individual level, they also become active agents in advocacy efforts and organize on the local and national levels. The program is designed as a tool for women to devise their own strategies to realize their rights, while also becoming active agents for social change. The map below shows the locations that HREP has reached in Turkey:<br /><br />According to the External Evaluation Research on HREP conducted by an independent research team, the impact of HREP on participants is:<br />93% of them have improved their self-confidence;<br />63% have stopped domestic violence while 22% have reduced it;<br />88% became resource people in their communities;<br />74% started participating more equally in decision-making in the family;<br />43% started participating actively in the labor market;<br />72% their husband’s attitude and behaviour towards them changed positively;<br />54% restarted their interrupted formal or non formal education;<br />90% gained knowledge on their political, civil and economic rights.<br />The study also finds that the women have become more active participants in the public sphere through participation in local government, advocacy campaigns, undertaking of initiatives such as organizing meetings/conferences, opening sales stands at local bazaars, setting up of businesses and so on. After participating in HREP, women in Ankara, Antalya, Aydin, Canakkale, Diyarbakir, Edirne, Istanbul (Gazi, Okmeydani, Umraniye), Izmir, Izmit, Samsun and Van have mobilized to initiate indedenpent grassroots women’s organizing initiatives around their own needs.Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-79317589370008463892010-06-08T01:08:00.000-07:002010-06-08T01:10:37.167-07:00Women in TurkeyTurkey is an interesting example, from the aspect of the position of women, because it is a country which is influenced by all the contradictions of globalization and traditions. First of all, the great majority of the population in Turkey is Moslem. Today, women are observed in the forefront of various echelons of the administration of the state. However, there are still inequalities between women and men, and also between women from different sectors of society, in accessing important development sources, such as education, health and employment. For many years the position of women in society has improved gradually. Although there are some decrees in violation of the equality of men and women in the law, significant steps have been taken in recent years to alleviate this discrimination. A national mechanism has been established and some laws have been amended. The number of Women's Studies Centers set up in universities have reached 13, a Woman's Library was founded and a number of projects were put into practice by the governmental and non-governmetal organizations. Most importantly, a sensitivity has been created on the subject of discrimination against women, and this issue began to be perceived as a problem which should be discussed.Turkey has participated in all the international conferences on the subject of women and has signed many international agreements directly or indirectly related to women. Turkey also accepted without reservations the Action Platform which was adopted at the Fourth World Women's Conference held in Beijing in 1995, in which she participated with a large delegation completely composed of women. By the year 2000, the Republic of Turkey represented by the State Minister at the Conference undertook:<br />• To increase the ratio of literacy among women to 100 percent,• To decrease the maternal-child mortality by 50 percent,• To make the eight year primary education compulsory, and• To remove the reservations included in the Charter for the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW).<br />In accordance with these undertakings, the compulsory primary education was extended to eight years and the reservations at CEDAW were removed.<br /><br />The National Mechanism. The acceptance of women's issues as an independent political and planning problem was discussed for the first time in the Fifth Five Year Development Plan (1985-1990), and "the General Directorate for the Status and Problems of Women" was established as a national mechanism in 1990. The General Directorate, which was connected to the Prime Ministry in 1991, has been carrying out its activities under the responsibility of a State Ministry. It conducts a large variety of activities with the objective of protecting women's rights, of strengthening the position of women in social, economic, cultural and political life, and of providing the equal utilization of rights, opportunities and capacities.<br />Legal Equality. The principle of the equality of women-men has been adopted in the Constitution and in the laws of Turkey. The equal treatment of women-men within the legal framework was provided by the adoption of the Swiss Civil Code. Only recently, it has been realized that some of the decrees are insufficient for today's society. A commission formed by the Ministry of Justice, of the professors of civil law, has been authorized to prepare a draft bill which is sensitive to gender, which takes into consideration the amendments made in the laws related to the family in European countries, and also international agreements sign- ed by the Republic of Turkey. The Commission completed its studies and announced the new Turkish Civil Draft Bill on 17 February 1998. The most important changes envisaged through this proposal are as follows: establishing equality for both genders in terms of marriageable age by raising such age to 17 for both sexes, the joint representation of marital unity by both of the partners, joint decision-making regarding the couples residence and the opportunity for equal ownership of all assets procured during the span of marriage, removal of the act of adultery from the Penal Law, the right to use the maiden name before the husband's name and the right to work without permission of the husband. The reservations which Turkey had formerly expressed regarding certain articles of CEDAW are removed on 20 September 1999. Furthermore, legal action which has culminated in the promulgation of legal decrees of social reform for the prevention of domestic violence, a growing social dilemma in the contemporary<br />world, have been realized. Law number 4320 for the Protection of the Family which was brought into force as of 17 January 1998, regulates the punishment to be meted out against those mistreated within the family. The law includes preventive measures for all women and children who have suffered as victims of domestic violence and who would appeal to the judicial system for their protection. Furthermore, the law foresees removal of the injuring party from the maltreated family member's premises for a certain period of time and, should an incidence of violation of the law occur, foresees a jail sentence ranging from 3 to 6 months.<br />Education and Women in Professions. Although significant numerical developments were recorded concerning women's literacy with the law on the "Unification of Education", which recognizes equal educational opportunities to females with males, the inequality against females in the ratio of literacy still continues. One third of the women in Turkey still do not know how to read and write. At the Beijing Conference the Turkish government undertook to make all the women in the population literate by the year 2000. As a matter of fact, within the scope of the "Project for the Improvement Women's Education", a sum total of 231,000 women have been reached out to with literacy courses throughout the country as of the end of 1999. Furthermore, with compulsory education being raised to eight years, from the former one of five years, by a law enacted in 1997, the rights of female children to receive secondary school education is now under state guarantee.<br />The sectoral employment data shows that professional women are represented by a great proportion in the fields of university teaching staff, medicine, dentistry and law.<br />The participation of women in higher education has increased throughout the years. The data shows that the share of women in higher education is close to one third of the total. The formation and acceptance of the concept of the equality of women and men in a country like Turkey where the majority of the population is Moslem, and where patriarchal values are dominant, has been possible to a great extent with the existence of a secular educational system.The inequality of the genders in the educational field directly affects the opportunities for the employment of women. Although a consensus of opinion has been reached from the aspect of the importance of women's participation in the labor force in Turkey, problems still continue in practice. The participation of women in the labor force is low. According to the 1998 data, this ratio is around 28 percent. The great majority of women within the labor force work in the agricultural sector as non-paid family workers. However, it is possible to talk about a positive correlation between the education and the employment of women. As a matter of fact, the rate of unemployment for urban, educated women (28.6%) with those of their male counterparts (30%) displays a paralellism. Furthermore, the sectoral employment data shows that professional women are represented at high ratios as university teachers and in the fields of medicine, dentistry and law. One of the obstacles preventing women from employment in productive fields is maternity and child-care. In order to change certain law and regulations concerning the maternity and child-care leave, there are still various activities carried out. After these changes the duration of leave for both workers and civil servants will be brought to an equal status and maternal leave will also be reinterpreted as parental leave.<br />Women and Health. Undoubtedly no gender discrimination exists regarding the laws as well as their practice in the health sector in Turkey. On the other hand, prolific pregnancy and birth have a negative health impact on both the mother and the child. With the 1994 World Population and Development Conference, the Ministry of Health adopted a policy change which included the emotional, social and physical health of women and young girls with an integrated approach, rather than only reproductive health and family planning as it did in the past. Another initiative brought onto the agenda by the Ministry of Health after the Beijing Conference, is to ensure the participation of men in reproductive health and family planning. This is a positive step taken by the state towards the improvement of health services sensitive to gender.<br />Women in Politics. Thanks to Atatürk, the founder of the Republic, who believed in the necessity of complete equality between women and men, all the political rights considered to be the foundation of citizenship rights were recognized for women in Turkey in a very short period of time. Women in Turkey obtained the right to vote and be elected in municipal elections in 1930 and in parliamentary elections in 1934. Prior to that date, the number of countries where women had the right to vote and be elected as members of parliament was 28 and the number of countries where women actually were elected as members of parliament was 17. When it is taken into consideration that women obtained the right to vote in 1944 in France, in 1945 in Italy and in 1948 in Belgium, it appears that Turkey was way ahead compared with many countries.<br />A total of 18 women became members of parliament in 1935, which was the year when women members were represented at the highest ratio in the parliament with 4.6 percent. However, as of 1946, when the multi-party system was adopted, a decrease in the number of women deputies was observed. Although the number of women taking an active role in politics has increased in recent years, the number of women are still considerably less than men. The last general election, which took place on 18 April 1999, brought 550 deputies elected into the Turkish parliament, 22 of which were women (4 percent).<br /><br />The women's movement, which gradually makes its voice heard in Turkey, became influential in having women enter into every field in the life of the community and especially in politics. Today, the political parties consider women beyond being just voters and give them a place at the top of their candidate lists.<br /><br />The Voluntary Women's Movement. In 1980s, when women's movement gained impetus all over the world, there observed an increase in the number of voluntary women institutions established in Turkey. Through the mobilization of the general public, these women's institutions have played a significant part in leading the amendment and abolition of certain items discriminating women in both Civil Law and Penal Code and also have taken an active part in their consciousness-raising endeavors on women' problems. In recent years, alongside with the increase in the number of the centers for helping women who were victims of violence or abused, it is noticeable that the associations with special tasks of supporting and reinforcing the women's participation in politics have also come into being. The Foundation for the Advancement and Recognition of Turkish Women, The Women's Shelter Foundation of Purple Roof, the Association of Women's Rights Protection, the Association for the Support and Training of Women Candidates are just a few names among more than 150 voluntary women's organizations working nationwide.Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-35868747830943647762010-06-08T01:05:00.002-07:002010-06-08T01:07:05.862-07:00Women in power and decision-makingThe attainment of an equal distribution of power and influence between women and men is an important goal of Swedish policy for equality. From an international perspective, Sweden has come a long way with regard to the distribution and redistribution of power between women and men. The equal number of women and men in the Government and the forty per cent share of women in the Swedish Parliament are the result of political will, combined with demands from NGOs and individuals.<br />Notwithstanding progress that has been made, continued efforts are required in order to increase women's power and influence in all areas of society, within both the private and the public sectors. In Sweden, the Government has limited possibilities for detailed control and direct influence upon developments in this area, apart from cases in which the Government itself appoints persons to governmental posts or in those cases where the Government decides upon employment. An understanding that, in certain cases, increased power for women can only be achieved through a redistribution of power from men to women must, therefore, be disseminated and gain acceptance in society in general.<br /><br />The Government has a goal that, by 1998, 50 per cent of the members of state boards and committees at central and regional level will be women. In 1996, 39 per cent were women.<br />Measures 1995 - 1997<br />The following measures were carried out in order to further the development towards an equal distribution of the sexes in state boards and committees:<br />* The distribution between men and women in state boards and committees at central and regional level is reported annually to Parliament.<br />* The various Ministries' proposals for assignments are notified to the Cabinet Office's Equality Affairs Division and the Division has to approve of the proposal in writing prior to the matter being brought before the Government for a decision. When organisations or agencies are offered to be represented on a committee or a state board, they are requested to submit proposals containing two names, a man and a women, for each place offered so that the Government can choose, according to the need to achieve an even distribution between women and men.<br />* Financial support is given to NGOs and agencies etc. for projects and other efforts to increase the portion of women in various decision-making fora.<br />Continued measures<br />* The Government will continue its work to achieve an equal distribution between the sexes on state boards and committees. Special efforts will be made to attain an equal distribution between the sexes in 1998.<br />* During 1996, the Government granted funds to the Swedish Association of Local Authorities and the Federation of County Councils for a project conducted in three municipalities and two county councils aimed at stimulating more active work towards, inter alia, increased female representation on municipal tribunals and boards. The experience gained from this project will be disseminated throughout the country and an evaluation will be presented prior to the general election to the Swedish Parliament in 1998.<br /><br />The Government is actively working to achieve an equal distribution between male and female managers within the public sector and is attempting to stimulate the development in this field within the private sector as well.<br />One target is that, during the Government's present term of office, at least half of the positions as agency managers appointed by it within the public administration, should be awarded to women. The governmental agencies have been encouraged to establish corresponding targets with regard to the distribution of women and men at management level.<br />Measures 1995 - 1997<br />* Twice a year, the Government produces statistics regarding the number of women and men employed at different levels within the Cabinet Office. A statistical survey of the pay differences between women and men employed in the Cabinet Office is also published regularly.<br />* During 1997, Statistics Sweden presented, at the request of the Government, a survey of the portion of women and men serving as managers within the public and private sectors, and their salary levels.<br />* The State's Renewal Fund has, during the period 1995-1996, carried out a managerial development programme for female managers.<br />Continued measures<br />* Work will be intensified towards attaining the goal that at least half of the public agency managers appointed by the Government during its term of office will be women.<br />* When Statistics Sweden has completed its study, the Government will consider how statistics can be produced on a regular basis regarding the portion of male and female managers within the public administration.<br />* The Government intends to adopt measures for the promotion of more active work within governmental agencies with regard to the issue of the portion of male and female managers.<br />* Employers and employees in the state sector will be invited to participate in discussions concerning further measures which might be required in order to intensify the work in recruitment and management issues.<br />* During 1997, the State's Renewal Fund will continue its work with the managerial development programme for female managers.<br />* The National Agency for Government Employers is planning a mentor programme for new and future female managers within the state sector.<br />* The primary responsibility for increasing the portion of women in higher positions in the private sector lies with the representatives of the business community. A newly established foundation, the so-called Business Leadership Academy, which has been established on the initiative of the business sector and with the support of the Government, is undertaking several measures in this respect.Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-46162603715255993342010-06-08T01:05:00.001-07:002010-06-08T01:05:44.366-07:00Women and the economyAccording to the Swedish policy for equality, women and men should have the same opportunities to achieve economic independence through gainful employment and parents should be able to combine work with parental responsibilities. To reach these goals, an active work is continously being undertaken in order to improve women's conditions in the labour market and to strenghten their economic situation. Measures already taken have contributed to women being increasingly less dependant on a man for their support. Sweden is today a two-bread-winner-society. Most Swedish women work, also those with small children. Women's entrepeneurship is increasing. A higher proportion of men take parental leave. Nevertheless, much remains to be done before full equality in the labour market and the economy prevails.<br />Measures 1995 - 1997<br />* In accordance with paragraph 164 of the PFA, the National Audit Bureau has been assigned to analyse all labour market policy measures from a gender perspective. The report is expected at the end of 1997.<br />* The Government has charged the National Labour Market Administration with the task of integrating a gender perspective in its work to carry out the national labour market policy. One important task in this respect is to break down the sex-segregation of the labour market, to which the Administration has special funds at its disposal.<br />* In 1995, the Goverment appointed the Commission on the distribution of economic power and financial resources between women and men. The aim of the Commission's work is to aquire and present further knowledge on how the economic policy affects the situaiton of women and men respectively, to make differences in economic and financial conditions between women and men visible and to propose measures in this field. The Commission has already presented several studies. It's final report is due at the end of 1997.<br />* In 1996, the Government presented a Bill to Parliament concerning employment. The Bill, which was adopted by Parliament in the spring of 1997, contained several measures which will improve the situation of women in the labour market, inter alia, investment in education and training, several measures in order to meet the Government's goal of halfing open employment by the year 2 000, improved conditions for women entrepreneurs, etc.<br />* In 1996, the Ministry of Labour initiated a 2-year project within the Ministry, with the aim of elaborating methods and gaining increased knowledge on ways and means to eliminate differences between women and men in the labour market and in working life.<br />* The budget of the Equal Opportunities Ombudsman, who has the task of supervising compliance with the Equal Opportunities Act, was substantially increased as of 1997.<br />* The Institute for Working Life has received funds for a 3-year research-project on pay differentials between women and men and work evaluation.<br />* The Government is continously pursuing an active dialogue with the social partners concerning pay differentials between women and men. To this end, the Government, in 1996, invited the social partners to attend a hearing on the issue.<br />* The Government has made funds available for the improvement of the offcial statistics on pay, so that the statistical indicators, better than today, can form the basis for enhanced analyses of women's and men's pay.<br />* In 1995, private industry in Sweden created a "Business leadership Academy" with the aim of supporting and promoting women entrepreneurs. The Government provided initial financial support for the Academy.<br />* The Swedish National Board for Industrial and Technical Development is conducting several activities with the aim of supporting women entrepreneurs.<br />Continued measures<br />* To strengthen the position of women and to break the sex segregation in the labour market are issues which are continously in the forefront in the Swedish labour market policy, in particular in the work to half the open unemployment by the year 2000 and to increase employment for all. Measures are thus being taken on a regular basis.<br />* The National Labour Market Board has been charged with the task of reporting, by the end of 1997, measures taken in order to counteract the sex segregation of the labour market and in particular to analyse the impact of earlier measures in this respect.<br />* Continued attention will be paid to gender-based pay differentials, and the dialogue with the social partners on these issues will be further developed.<br />* When the final report of the Commission on the distribution of economic power and financial resources between women and men is available, by the end of 1997, the Government will consider further measures to strenghten the position of women in the economy.<br />* The Government will propose a strengthening of the provisions in the Equal Opportunities Act relating to sexual harassment in the work place.Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-33890649722634696812010-06-08T01:04:00.001-07:002010-06-08T01:04:56.781-07:00Women and armed conflictSweden will continue to actively promote in various ways and in various fora (UN, OSSE, UNHCR, etc) that increased attention is paid to crimes and acts of violence committed against women in armed conflicts, in particular relating to practical measures in concrete field situations. The vulnerable situation of women and girls in internal disturbances and conflicts will also be continously adressed, including by promoting efforts to enhance their protection. Sweden will also work actively towards increased attention being paid to the male perpetrators of crimes against women in armed conflicts and seek to encourage that, inter alia, educational and information efforts are undertaken by various fora concerned. In the efforts to punish war crimes and crimes against humanity, including rape, Sweden is actively working towards the establishment of a permanent international criminal court.Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-67646579098301004242010-06-08T01:03:00.000-07:002010-06-08T01:04:24.780-07:00Violence against womenIssues concerning the prevention of violence against women have high priority in Sweden. The Government considers men's violence against women to be one of the most serious expressions of the lack of equality and, consequently, also of the imbalance which still exists in the power relationship between the sexes, both between individual women and men and in society at large. During the last few years, a number of measures have been undertaken to counteract violence against women and to support, aid and protect vulnerable women. Amongst those measures, legislation and changes to existing legislation, e.g. increased penalties for a number of violent and sexual crimes, might be pointed out. New rules have also been introduced to increase the protection of children against sexual abuse. Efforts have also been made with respect to preventive measures, e.g. training of personel within the legal system, social services and health care system.<br />Furthermore, the National Police Board has received funds for the development of emergency protection for women subjected to violence or at risk. This protection is now available at all police districts in the form of specially equipped emergency kits, containing cellular phones, alarm systems for the home etc. Threatened women can, in particularly serious cases, receive body guards, free of charge.<br />In the beginning of the 1990s, the Goverment allocated funds for the setting up of a chair in sociology, specifically women's studies and with a particular focus on issues related to violence against women, at Uppsala University.<br />Measures 1995 - 1997<br />* The Commission on Violence Against Women submitted it's final report to the Government in 1995. The Commission had, according to its terms of reference from the Government, the task of carrying out an overview of issues relating to violence against women and to propose additional measures, inter alia, within the legal system, social services and health care. The Commission had the duty of preparing its proposals from a women perspective. The Commission's report was sent to a large number of organisations and government authorities for their views before the Swedish Cabinet Office continued with the work of preparing the Commission's proposals. Those viewpoints were compiled into a single report in the autumn of 1996.<br />* A national centre for women who have been assaulted and raped was established during the autumn of 1995. The initial stage of the centre's activities has been financed with state funds. The task of the centre is to carry out patient admissions, research and development, and to provide training and information. The centre also provides hotlines around the clock.<br />* The Government has increased the financial support to the Swedish NGO for emergency shelters for battered women (ROKS) .<br />* The Government has supported various projects (including information activities) related to violence against women.<br />* In order to stimulate increased knowledge and debate concerning men and violence, the Government convened a conference on men and violence in the beginning of 1997. The aim was to focus particularly on the role of men and men�s responsibility with regard to violence against women.<br />* Also in the beginning of 1997, a hearing was organised with respect to violence against migrant women.<br />Continued measures<br />* During the fall of 1997, the Government will, as a result of the report of the Commission on Violence Against Women, present a Bill to Parliament with proposals to further counteract violence against women. The Government Bill will deal, inter alia, with issues relating to legislation, notably the Penal Code, the judiciary, the social services and health care system, as well as financial support to NGOs working to protect women who have been subjected to violence. Issues related to the training of personel in the judiciary and other authorities will also be considered. In addition, the Bill will contain further measures to counteract prostitution. In the context of preparing the Bill, work is also being undertaken in order to consider ways and means to strengthen the present provisions concerning female genital mutilation and the provisions in the Equal Opportunities Act relating to sexual harassment.<br />* The Government will make continuous efforts to improve the situation of women victims of crime.<br />* The Government will consider whether measures are necessary in order to prevent the risk that women, moving to Sweden due to a connection with a person residing in Sweden, are exposed to abuse or other offensive treatment by such person.<br />* Sweden will continue to work with issues regarding trafficking in women.Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-69502845666003707692010-06-08T01:02:00.000-07:002010-06-08T01:03:39.639-07:00Women and healthHealth care and medical services is an important sector of Swedish welfare. The Swedish national health care system is designed to give everyone equal treatment and care irrespective of his or her economic, social or health circumstances. In addition, every inhabitant from the age of 16 is eligible for social insurance benefits, including sickness benefit.<br />The average life expectancy for Swedish women and men is 81 and 76 years respectively. However, studies show that women have more symptoms of ill-health and use medical services more often than men. Women, in particular elderly women, also take more sick leave than men. Women's impaired health situation cannot be explained by biological factors, however. The causes are rather to be found in women's social situation and in their working conditions. In recent years, therefore, much attention has been directed to issues related to women's health and safety at work.<br />Sexual and reproductive health is an issue with longstanding traditions in Sweden. Sex education is, since long (it was first introduced in 1942), an integrated part of school education for both boys and girls, normally already from the first grade. Sex education comprises education about sex, health and personal relationsships. Contraceptives and contraceptive guidance is regularly offered by the maternity care centers as well as by independent centres, youth clinics and the health and medical care system. Abortions are free up to the 18th week of pregnancy. For later abortions, special permission is required. A woman who has asked for an abortion is always offered the possibility of counselling.<br />A variety of means have been and are continously being employed in the combatting of sexual transmitted diseases (STDs).<br />Measures 1995 - 1997<br />* One of the five programme areas within the Institute for Public Health concerns women's health. It's programme statement points out that legislation, research, education, working life, medicine and other treatment are mostly based on men's needs and conditions. During 1995, the Institute financed several regional and local projects related to women's health. Measures have also been undertaken directed to young women. During 1996, special attention was directed towards the health situation of personel (mostly women) working in the care sector.<br />* In 1995, the Government allocated funds (SEK 1,5 million) for development projects with the aim of integrating issues concerning women's health into the basic medical education as well as in further training programmes for medical doctors.<br />* In August 1996, a committee with the task of investigating the way women and men, respectively, are received and treated by the health and medical services, presented it's final report to the Government. The committee proposes, inter alia, increased support to research related to women's health, further measures to integrate a gender perspective in medical and other education in this fields, and ways and means for evaluation and monitoring of progress in this field. The report is presently studied within the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs with a view of taking further measures in the field of women's health.<br />* Several measures have been undertaken to support women with disabilites. Funds have been allocated for projects and other development work, with the aim of strengthening disabled women's possibilities for rehabilitation and access to various forms of assistance. The Ministry for Health and Social Affairs has initiated several studies in order to increase the knowledge about the living conditions for women with disabilities and the difference in conditions between disabled women and men. The Office of the Disability Ombudsman works actively to promote issues related to disabled women.<br />* Measures have also been undertaken in the area of women's health and safety at work. The National Board of Occupational Safety and Health has been charged with the task of paying increased attention to women's and gender issues. The Institute for Working Life has initiated several studies on the health situation in occupational sectors dominated by women.<br />Continued measures<br />* The Government will take further action on issues related to women's health and gender-based differences in the activites of the health and medical sectors, inter alia, based on the report submitted by the above mentioned committee.<br />* Continuing attention will be paid to the situation of disabled women. Ways and means to improve statistical indicators related to women and men with disabilities will be studied.<br />* Sweden will continue it's active international work to promote issues related to sexual and reproductive health, not least in order to contribute to the implementation of the results of the UN, Cairo- and Beijing Conferences. These issues therefore play, inter alia, an important part in Sweden's international development cooperation.Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-80267572309126163572010-06-08T01:01:00.000-07:002010-06-08T01:02:51.900-07:00Education and training of womenWomen and men, including girls and boys, shall, pursuant the Swedish policy for equality, have equal access to training and the same opportunities to develop personnel ambitions, interests and talents. The Government is continously undertaking measures in order to achieve these goals.<br />Measures 1995 - 1997<br />* In 1995, Parliament acted on a Bill from the Government concerning equality between women and men, girls and boys, within the area of education. The Government Bill contains a series of proposals concerning the promotion of equality both within the public school system (compulsory school and upper secondary school) and higher education and research.<br />* Amendments to the Education Act, which includes rules for the public school system, have been implemented entailing, inter alia, a requirement that employees within the school system promote equality between the sexes. This means that the teachers shall base their teaching on issues and perspectives which interest both girls and boys. In addition, pursuant to the Education Act, all children and young persons, irrespective of issues such as gender, shall have equal access to education within the public school system. Corresponding provisions exist with respect to issues regarding adult education. The school's responsibility for actively promoting equal rights and opportunities for girls and boys and to counteract traditional gender patterns will also be emphasised in the curricula for schools.<br />* During 1997, the Government appointed a Parliamentary committee which shall deal, inter alia, with issues regarding training of teachers as well as the continuing and subsequent training of teachers. The investigation shall specifically consider the gender perspective and propose, inter alia, measures to accomplish an egual recruitment of women and men teachers.<br />* Rules in the University Ordinance concerning the grounds for promotion of teachers have been amended such that it is permissible, where necessary, to apply affirmative action of the underrepresented sex. A rule has also been introduced requiring universities endeavour to ensure that students are not subjected to sexual harassment.<br />* The Government has given all colleges and universities offering natural science and technical training the task of undertaking measures to increase the number of women within those educational programmes. In order to increase the number of men, a corresponding task has been assigned to educational institutions with respect to teacher and health-care training.<br />* The Government has allocated funds for the establishment of a number of professorships and research assistant positions for the underrepresented sex. Funds have also been allocated for female doctoral candidates and post-doctoral stipends and guest professorships for female researchers.<br />* During the autumn of 1996, the Government presented a Bill regarding research which contains proposals to increasingly promote research with a gender perspective. By way of example, it was proposed that funds be allocated to establish a number of professorships with this aim, and a secretariat connected to a university with the task of investigating, creating opinion, stimulating, documenting and providing information concerning gender research.<br />* In the spring of 1997, a Bill was presented to Parliament with, inter alia, a proposal for concrete time-bound targets for the recruitment of professors of the underrepresented sex at each of the universities and some of the colleges. If the target is not fulfilled by the university in question, the Government can withdraw funds from the university and stipulate that such funds should be used only for the recruitment of professors of the underrepresented sex.<br />Continued measures<br />* The Government, through supervision by the National Agency for Education, will continue to pursue the goal of equality concerning, inter alia, the division of the Education Act into manageable and concrete goals in the schools' own school and work plans.<br />* The Government has appointed two committees to investigate whether the rights of boys and girls to equal education is observed in compulsory and upper-secondary schools. The committees' work will be concluded in 1997.<br />* The Government has given the National Agency for Education the task of pursuing and evaluating equality within schools. The National Agency for Education is currently preparing a strategy for equality issues and is carrying out a comprehensive project which, inter alia, aims to pursue the development of equal opportunities within schools and, specifically, to ensure that equality issues are considered in connection with the Agency's evaluation and development work.<br />* The Government has taken the initiative to implement a five-year adult education programme with 100,000 new places. The adult education measures, to be commenced on 1 July 1997, will have an especially significant roll for women and men in fields which suffer from economic and structural changes, e.g. within health care and manufacturing industries. The programme will also actively contribute to breaking the gender imbalance within the labour market.Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-9539984103312004582010-06-08T01:00:00.002-07:002010-06-08T01:01:48.861-07:00Women and poverty in Sweden* The overriding goal of the Swedish development co-operation is to raise the standard of living of the poor. Sweden is active internationally in its work to combat poverty, and allocates 0.7 percent of the GDP as development assistance each year.<br /><br />Measures 1995 - 1997<br /><br />* During the spring of 1996, the Parliament decided, upon a proposal by the Government, that equality between men and women should constitute a new goal (together with five other goals) for Swedish development co-operation. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Swedish aid agency, SIDA (Swedish International Development Co-operation Agency), have developed guidelines and management programmes with the aim of transforming the goals into practice and have assessed how the skills and resources in assistance administration shall be strengthened so that these goals may be achieved.<br /><br />* The goal of equality means that all development co-operation should be imbued with a gender perspective, including girls and boys. An gender perspective should thus characterise the work of country strategies and analyses of the economy and societal structure of the co-operating countries as well as the formation of individual contributions. Sweden shall also strive to ensure that the gender perspective characterises multilateral development co-operation, as well as analyses and the investments which are carried out by the EU, United Nations and the multilateral development banks.<br /><br />* Sweden is actively working to ensure that international financing institutions integrate a gender perspective into their activities. Sweden partially finances, by way of example, a study within the framework for the World Bank's special programme for Africa in respect of how the gender perspective is integrated into the bank's structural adjustment programme in three African countries.<br /><br />* SIDA has selected four co-operation countries, Vietnam, Tanzania, Namibia and Bangladesh, for specific and intensified equality-work based upon the PFA.<br /><br />Continued measures<br /><br />* In 1997, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs initiated a project for the mainstreaming of a gender perspective in the development co-operation through, inter alia, contributions to training and skills development for personnel in the Ministry. The project continues.<br /><br />* SIDA works on the basis of a general plan, as well as multi-sector plans of action, in order to strengthen the gender perspective in all development co-operation. Equality is one of the four, specially prioritised areas of SIDA's work.<br /><br />* Sweden is planning economic support, via UNDP, for the development of democracy in countries previously within the Soviet Union. This support will be aimed at, inter alia, measures which counteract inequality.Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-72010627404592011082010-06-08T01:00:00.001-07:002010-06-08T01:00:41.677-07:00IntroductionIntroduction<br />A number of steps towards equality between women and men have been undertaken in Sweden since the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing. The following is a report of measures undertaken as well as of some of the measures planned with respect to the critical areas of concern of the Platform for Action (PFA).<br />During the autumn of 1995 and spring of 1996, work was actively carried out within the Swedish Cabinet Office in order to identify and analyse how Sweden is living up to the commitments within the PFA. Every department has studied the PFA within its respective area of responsibility and has reported the result to the division for Equality Affairs at the Ministry of Labour.<br />On the Government's behalf, the Minister for Equality Affairs has subsequently reported the results in a written communication to Parliament. The written communication also contains a report of how the policy for equality between women and men has developed during the last few years and sets forth the main features of the work for the years to come. A parliamentary debate with respect to the contents of the written communication took place in March, 1997.<br />In summary, it may be stated that Sweden is largely living up to the commitments in the PFA. The issues dealt with in the PFA are also those which form the basis of the Swedish national policy for equality. As a result, the issues in the PFA will be relevant to deal with in Sweden during the period up to the year 2000 and beyond. Consequently, Sweden will work further with regard to the critical areas of concern of the PFA and will regularly inform the Swedish Parliament with respect to the progress of the work and the results achieved.<br />Furthermore, Sweden will continue to work actively to integrate a gender perspective into it's international development cooperation and will act in various ways to strengthen the implementation of women's human rights globally.<br />It should also be noted that in the beginning of 1997, approximately 40 Swedish women's organisations and other organisations working for equality between women and men formed an umbrella organisation, SAMS. The formation of the new organisation may be regarded as a direct result of the Beijing Conference and the need to co-ordinate the Swedish NGO participation in international cooperation in the field of equality. One of the main aims of the newly formed organisation is to work with the Beijing PFA.<br />It should at last be noted that the listing of measures in the present report is not exhaustive.Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8635999121141879746.post-55330933834634401142010-06-08T00:58:00.000-07:002010-06-08T00:59:39.329-07:00Human rights in SwedenIn Sweden, human rights are primarily protected through three Constitutional laws: the Instrument of Government, the Freedom of the Press Act and the Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression. Freedom of the press has been protected in the Constitution since the 18th century and this right is one of the oldest in the country.<br /><br />Constitutional law<br /><br />Protection of human rights is primarily dealt with in the first two chapters of the Instrument of Government. The first chapter establishes that public power should be exercised with respect for the equal worth of all and for the freedom and dignity of the individual. It goes on to state that public authority should especially safeguard the right to work, housing and education and should promote social welfare, security and a good environment for people to live in.<br /><br />Basic rights and freedoms<br />The second chapter includes regulations on basic rights and freedoms, such as, for example, positive and negative freedoms of opinion, and physical integrity. The same chapter makes it clear that laws and other regulations may not lead to any citizen being disadvantaged because he/she belongs to a minority, in terms of race, skin colour or ethnic origin. It goes on to state that laws and other regulations may not lead to any citizen being disadvantaged because of his/her gender, unless the regulation is part of attempts to achieve equality between men and women or applies to military service or similar compulsory service. Other statutes of the constitution describe conditions in which encroachments on the right to engage in business are permitted, and legally regulate Sami rights to engage in reindeer husbandry. The right to free basic education in state schools is also protected in the Swedish Constitution.<br /><br />Restrictions on rights and freedoms<br />The second chapter of the Instrument of Government also includes regulations on basic rights and freedoms in which restrictions may be permitted, the form for decisions on such restrictions and the general principles that must be observed when imposing a restriction. A restriction must be supported by the law, and may only be imposed to achieve objectives that are acceptable in a democratic society. A restriction may not go beyond the bounds necessary to achieve its purpose or be so extensive that freedom of opinion, one of the fundamental bases of democracy, is threatened. Nor may a restriction be imposed solely because of political, religious, cultural or other beliefs. For specific rights and freedoms, there are further regulations on restrictions.<br /><br />The rights of aliens<br />For the most part, aliens have the same status as Swedish citizens, but may be subject to special legislation, as may be seen in the second chapter of the Instrument of Government.<br /><br />In addition to the Swedish Constitution, many Swedish laws and regulations at other levels are of practical significance for the basic rights and freedoms of the individual. This applies to a number of different laws and regulations involving, for example, health and medical care, the social services, penal care, protection against various forms of discrimination, the educational system and trials of criminal and civil cases.<br /><br />The European Convention<br />Since 1995, the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms has been incorporated into Swedish law (SF: 1994:1219). A statute has been included in the Instrument of Government that states that laws and other regulations may not be enacted in contravention of Sweden's commitments under the Convention. Laws enacted before the Convention was incorporated into Swedish legislation must be interpreted in accordance with the Convention and existing practice. Legislation enacted later may not contravene the Convention or existing practice.<br /><br />The EU sphere of competence<br />Several issues lying within the sphere of competence of the EU are very closely linked with human rights. This is the case, for example, with asylum and gender equality policies. When legislation originating directly from EU institutions is to be implemented in Sweden, either via directives to be imposed or ordinances to be applied directly, it is important that the human rights perspective is included. This concept is emphasised by the fact that in Nice in December 2000, the European Council proclaimed the statute on fundamental rights, the so-called European Charter on fundamental human rights. The statute is a political declaration.<br /><br />Sweden has signed and ratified most of the documents involving human rights within the UN, the International Labour Organisation (ILO) and the Council of Europe. Responsibility for ensuring that human rights are not violated rests with the Government, and central government and local administration. However, it is not only the Government's work on improving the promotion and protection of human rights that is important. A number of other actors in society, both public and private, contribute in their work to the promotion and protection of human rights.<br /><br />The Delegation for Human Rights in Sweden<br />A delegation is established to support the long-term work to ensure full respect for human rights in Sweden, on the basis of the Government’s written communication A National Action Plan for Human Rights 2006–2009 (Govt. Comm. 2005/06:95). Under its mandate, the Delegation will:<br /><br />-support government agencies, municipalities and county councils in their work to ensure full respect for human rights in their activities,<br />-develop and implement strategies to increase information and knowledge about human rights in various target groups in society, partly by coordinating the EU initiative European Year of Equal Opportunities for All and the Council of Europe campaign All Different – All Equal in Sweden,<br />- stimulate public debate on human rights, and<br />- present proposals on how to provide continued support to work towards ensuring full respect for human rights in Sweden after the Delegation has completed its mandate.<br /><br />The Delegation will submit a final report on its work to the Government no later than 31 March 2010.Geniushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09523853251667469138noreply@blogger.com